Utilization of computer system in psychological testing has steadily increased over the past two decades. The computer system has assisted in administering, carrying out tests, and providing interpretive results. Use of computers in psychological testing has evolved in the past 40 years where large time-sharing computers were applied to optically scan, test, and profile moderate tests which were followed by an interpretive report from these systems. Currently, there is a variety of different types of computers used in administering tests, scoring, and interpreting test results. This paper will address existing psychological testing structures and discuss contemplations in developing and applying computer testing systems. Additionally, it will also address benefits and problems accrued by computer psychological testing systems, emerging ethical issues, and the need to adhere to the set standards during the administration and interpretation of the psychological tests.
The types of psychological computer testing systems include stand-alone microcomputer testing systems, optical scanners, multiuser minicomputer systems, microcomputer/table-top scanner combination and computer networks. Optical scanning is one of the oldest testing computer systems in psychology where mark-sensing optical scanners are applied. In this system light source technology is used to identify carbon pencil marks at specific coordinates on special answer papers (Burke and Normand, 1987) . The carbon pencil marks are translated to data codes and the data obtained is stored on an output medium. Special software performs further data manipulations. The cost incurred in this system varies concerning the type of testing carried out, nature of output desired, and the type of mailing service applied. Although this method is economical as compared to profile plotting and hand-scoring, it has a disadvantage of delay in processing results.
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Another type of computer physiological testing system is stand-alone microcomputer testing systems. This type of system is individually-contained, computerized psychological testing schemes that administer tests, score the tests, and deliver a complete printed evaluation. In addition to IBM and DEC equipment, there is personal computer product line which includes hardware such as Apple, KayPro, and COMPAQ. Currently, programs are available for these types of hardware (Burke and Normand, 1987) . Additionally, these systems are not restricted only for psychological testing tasks. Initially hardware and software were purchased as single bundled packages, but currently, publishers have provided software packages that are compatible with a variety of personal computers. Software packages have enabled testing service providers to purchase hardware and software distinctly without relying on a single vendor when buying new software.
Another type of psychological computer systems is Multiuser Minicomputer Systems where standard minicomputer-based schemes with multiuser and multitasking abilities are used. A multiuser minicomputer system can be used as a small networking system by enabling remote users to apply telecommunication channels to obtain contact with the minicomputer. Some of the available systems in the market are capable of supporting up to 16 cathode-ray tubes (CRT) computers (Burke and Normand, 1987) . This system is mainly used by psychologists who want to automate both the testing process and office management functions such as client billing, appointment scheduling, and word processing.
Also, another physiological computer system is Microcomputer/Table-Top Scanner Combination which applies a recent scanning technology in combination with microcomputer-printer and a table-top scanner (Burke and Normand, 1987) . The scanner applies light technology to interpolate pencil marks made on a unique scannable form and the microcomputer together with the scanner pick up optical mark readings, process information obtained, summarize results, and communicate to the printer or another output medium. Recently, software packages are available for making scores and generating reports for the commonly administered psychological tests. This type of system provides the user with onsite ability to enter and process tests data. Through a combination of an inexpensive microcomputer with modern scanners the measurement service benefactor score variety of tests within a short duration.
Computer Networks is another computer psychological system. Commercially applications of networking technology available for psychological assessment varies greatly, depending on hardware, communication medium, and the ability of the software available on processing host computer (Burke and Normand, 1987) . Different networking system allows the user to input either total test scores or enable the test taker to answer test items via the keyboard. The connected network charges vary about the length of time, types of communication lines, nature of tests input, and the type of output chosen.
Each of these computer psychological systems raises different issues ranging from test service provider, cost-effectiveness, and ethical consideration. The major considerations include determining quality, feasibility, and realism of computerized physiological testing system. The consideration factors in computer testing can be grouped into four specifications. These specifications include equipment specifications, systems specifications, data record specifications, programming specifications and procedure specifications.
The equipment specifications in computerized testing systems can be dictated by factors such as some clients tested in a period a period, the complexity of data presentation, and the complexity of scoring schemes from the tests (Butcher, 1987) . Based on the above factors equipment must incorporate communication equipment, large memory ability, a particular type of computer terminal. The system specifications put consideration depending on the nature of the jobs of those who are likely to be affected by the system and also the need for implementation of the system. Specifications can be set in job duties such as gathering interviewing information, accumulating and gathering demographic data, administering tests, scoring, summarizing test results, revising test results and providing feedback to the clients.
Concerning data record specifications all system users should give all the specifications concerning what client information is to be collected. The type of data codes, data manipulation procedures, length of personal records, data storage medium used and the time frame for saving data must be specified (Alfredy, 2013) . System designers should also evaluate whether their data records are to be regularly updated. Providing all these specifications for data records and protocols will assist in scheming an efficient and effective computer testing system.
In respect to program specification, the initial determination is whether an individual will make the software investment by purchasing off-the-shelf programs or spending time and labor to write the programs. When selecting or designing software programs, it is helpful to consider whether hardware and software are compatible, ease of operation, and suitability of the software (Alfredy, 2013) . If an organization is designing its software efficient language of the software must be chosen to ensure the software is modular to create space for expansion of new applications when needed. In addition to the technical specifications, steps must be taken in determining how psychologically the organization is in accepting computerized testing systems.
The potential benefits of computerized testing include adaptive testing, cost-effectiveness and efficiency, the reliability of reports, validity, equivalence, and acceptability to clients. Adaptive or tailored testing in which a computer program adjusts the test difficulty to the ability of the person being tested is the advantageous use of computers. An adaptive test uses a continuous process to determine person ability many times during testing. Adaptive tests provide a level of measurements in determining accuracy obtained with longer ASVAB tests (Burke, 1993) . Testing time, boredom and fatigue can be reduced in adaptive testing session. Another advantage is cost-effectiveness and efficiency; adaptive testing saves on cost in some cases over conventional papers and pencil testing. In contrast, investigators have reported that non-adaptive computerized testing provides benefits regarding speed, reliability, and economy.
Another benefit accrued is the reliability of reports, computer reports are very reliable because if same replies are given and inputted into the computer during two or more sessions, the computer will produce the same report. This reduces error thus providing consistent information and reducing any system failure (Burke, 1993) . Another benefit achieved is validity and equivalence. Researchers have reported that reports generated from computers have superior validity. Neuropsychological area and clinical psychology have generated valid computer-generated reports. Additionally, clients acceptability is a benefit for computerized testing as clients tend to react favorably to computerized testing.
Computerized psychological testing has faced potential problems such as inadequate provision for human factors, acceptability to professionals and rise of questions regarding test procedures and results feedback. Clients view computerized testing having inadequate human factors. To ensure clarity of instructions when the test is taking place, the organization must allow practice before the test and provide a backup key for error checking and correction. Professional is not willing to accept the system despite client acceptance (Hofer and Green, 1985) . Similarly, questions have been raised regarding reliability, norms of computerized tests and validity. It has been argued that bleaching of confidentiality is magnified when testing is conducted via computer. Another major problem is inadequate feedback to clients especially concerning personality and clinical tests.
Computer applications in psychological test administration have faced significant ethical implications for clients, clinicians, and computerized test administration. Lack of awareness of computer-related implications can undermine Clinicians ability to perform computerized physiological tests ethically (Ryabik, Olson and Kleim, 1984) . Clinicians need to be exposed to ethical dilemmas, possible errors in analyzing computer-generated reports, and potential judging errors. Increasing cognizance of relevant issues will increase prevalence that ethical dilemmas will successfully reduce.
There is need for the adoption of standards used in computerized testing. The increase of computer interpretations has been coupled with problems leading to a call for limiting the availability of computerized testing only for specially qualified individuals (Murphy and Davidshofer, 1988). There is a need to review the interpretive systems because the majority of the systems give unsatisfactory results.
The future of computer-based testing is bright in assessing education, business, and psychology. The computerized system has the potential of being cost-effective, and practical. This potential can be realized by proper consideration made in designing, developing and applying testing systems following professional standards. Before the adoption of computerized psychological testing become widespread, important psychometric issues, as well as ethical considerations, must be addressed.
References
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