Abstract
Conflicts in an organization result in tension and other related negative emotions leading to disruption of progress and lowered productivity of the firm in question. Conflict coaching refers to the process of conflict analysis that involves one conflict resolution professional and one disputant and h as its roots in the ombuds field. Conflict coaching, as a distinct concept, was first implemented at Macquarie University and Temple University . The two institutions are recognized for developing the TKI and CCC models. T he TKI helps individuals in assessing their effectiveness in utilizing the chosen conflict styles while the CCC assumes that communication forms the basis for conflict. This conflict coaching model assumes that communication acts as the basis for conflict. Despite its popularity, conflict coaching does not surpass other alternative processes like mediation in value . However, the two areas are dissimilar with regard to research substantiation. In the future , there is a need to move the field beyond 'mediation-centrism.' Besides comparing and contrasting different conflict coaching models, there is a need to create new ones. More research is also needed, combined with the adoption of recent insights from executive coaching and conflict resolution . These insights can be used in advancing the conflict coaching field further.
Conflict Coaching: The Use of Thomas-Kilman Conflict Mode Instrument and Comprehensive Conflict Coaching Models
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The occurrence of conflicts in an organization is inevitable. Conflicts result in tension and other related negative emotions. These emotions are likely to disrupt progress and lower a firm’s overall productivity. The concept of conflict coaching rose out of the need to ensure that conflict does not disrupt the functioning of an organization ( Brinkert, 2010 ; Gadlin , 2014 ; Brinkert, 2016 ). Conflict coaching aids in restoring communication as well as improving the relationship between disputing parties. By helping individuals work through and address disagreements, conflict coaching ensures the smooth running of organizations. Several models have been developed to facilitate conflict coaching. This paper will focus on the Thomas-Kilman Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) and Comprehensive Conflict Coaching (CCC) models. Ultimately, CCC plays a vital role in all communication conflicts and the importance of TKI Dual Concerns Model cannot be overstated in coaching and communication conflicts.
Literature Review
Defining Conflict Coaching
Conflict coaching refers to the process of conflict analysis that involves one conflict resolution professional and one disputant. In the process, the disputant and coach communicate one-on-one so as to develop the disputant's interaction strategies and skills, as well as his or her conflict-related understanding ( Brinkert , 2006 ). This definition is deemed broad in that it covers various forms of communication between the disputant and the coach. In this context, conflict coaching is chiefly a face-to-face interaction. Nevertheless, printed resources and activities can be used occasionally. Likewise, the interaction can be achieved through videophone, telephone, the internet, or any other medium via which one-on-one communication can be achieved.
The definition of conflict coaching as a process involving a disputant and a conflict resolution profession is also expansive in that numerous forms of conflict-related conversations can take place therein. According to Brinkert (2006), these conversations may include such aspects making sense of a conflict, how to manage conflict actively, and communication behaviors that the disputant can employ. Contextual issues such as cultural, organizational, and interpersonal factors play a vital role in any conflict coaching conversation. However, the definition does not cover these aspects. Exclusion of these issues allows conflict coaching to be applied to a wide range of relational circumstances. Likewise, the exclusion gives room for the proposal of various conflict coaching models.
Brinkert (2016) and Brinkert (2006) also define conflict coaching as a dyadic process involving a client and a coach trained in executive coaching or conflict resolution. On the other hand, Noble (2012) reckons that conflict coaching is a one-on-one process whereby a trained coach assists individuals in gaining the confidence and competence necessary to help them in managing and engaging in their disputes and conflicts. The author also argues that conflict coaching is a future-focused and goal-oriented process whose core aim is to help clients meet particular conflict management objectives. There is a consensus that this coaching is aimed at developing the client’s understanding of conflict, interaction skills, and interaction strategies.
There is also consensus that conflict coaching as a process takes a one-on-one approach, which ultimately helps clients in engaging with conflicts more effectively. It is also clear that the role of a conflict coach in the process is to help his or her clients develop skills that would help them analyze and engage in conflict ( Keel , 2013). Further, conflict coaching may be focussed on a developing, current, or ongoing disagreement. It could also be solely directed at general skill development. Conflict coaching takes place as a single or separate process. It may also be carried out in combination with such processes as organizational training or mediation. The emergence and prominence of conflict coaching within the field of conflict resolution resulted from the unwillingness of one or more parties to take part in mediation. However, Brinkert (2016) argues that the uses of conflict coaching have become more diverse.
History of Conflict Coaching
Origin
Coaching has its roots in the ombuds field. The ombuds began doing coaching informally in the 1970s ( Brinkert, 2010 ; Gadlin , 2014 ; Brinkert, 2016 ). According to Gadlin (2014), the term ‘coaching’ was used by the Ombuds in describing their initial meetings with clients. Conflict coaching, as a distinct concept in the field of conflict resolution, emerged in the 1990s ( Brubaker et al., 2014). Australia’s Macquarie University is recognized as being the first institution to formally develop a coaching-oriented process that was specific to conflicts in 1993 ( Keel, 2013; Brinkert, 2016 ). Initially referred to as 'problem solving for one,' this process was not only dyadic but was also interest-based. It was targeted at individuals caught up in conflict situations whereby one or more parties were not willing to take part in mediation. In 1996, the term ‘conflict coaching’ began to be used in describing conflict styles coaching targeted at Temple University’s individual disputants who were part of the university’s conflict resolution program whose focus group were the students ( Keel, 2013; Brinkert, 2016 ). This program was referred to as the Conflict Education Resource Team (CERT).
Temple University expanded its conflict coaching program to incorporate conflict coaching for issues related to diversity in preparation for any possible confrontation and mediation. Conflict coaching acts as a means of assisting individuals when viewed in the context of integrated conflict management systems. For individuals affiliated with the executive coaching community, coaching and conflict were addressed in several outstanding ways between the mid-1990s and early 2000s. This implies that conflict coaching as a concept was widely used in both the executive coaching field and the conflict resolution field ( Brinkert, 2016 ). Executive coaches often deal with related to problematic behavior that may emerge between the executive and others. This implies that they have to use conflict coaching.
In the context of human resources, coaching conflict management with groups and individuals is a vital tool for resolving workplace conflict. In some coaching situations, executive coaches need conflict knowledge. Moreover, for executives with an increased predisposition to negative conflict patterns, executive coaches can offer rehearsals using video feedback. Scholars have made a comparison between coaching and mediation. In this respect, they noted that the two terms overlap and are likely to be confusing ( Brinkert, 2016 ). For example, the two roles require similar competencies. Likewise, the marketplaces for the two areas are challenging to navigate for providers. Conflict coaching has been employed in the field of human resources for many years. In the mid-1990s, coaching was recognized as a crucial human resource development (HRD) competency ( Ellinger & Kim , 2014). In this light, coaching has been used in helping individuals deal with interpersonal and organizational conflicts in the workplace.
Developments since the 90s
The field of conflict coaching experienced unprecedented development prior to 2005. This was exemplified by the emergence of two critical fields, namely executive coaching and conflict resolution. While the two areas are recognized as distinct categories, their development was not only simultaneous but also overlapped thematically ( Brinkert, 2016 ). Executive coaching refers to a one-on-one professional development that takes place in an organizational setting. Executive coaching first emerged in business settings in the late 1980s. It did not come about as a new practice or concept. Instead, it was recognized as a more appealing term for consultancy services offered to senior leaders and managers that had evolved considerably over time.
Executive coaching varies in scope, implying that its duration and topics covered may range from narrow to expansive. Its uses are also numerous and include teaching specific skills, improving job performance, preparing targeted individuals for professional advancement, and aiding in such broader objectives as informing an executive's agenda for any planned significant organizational change ( Brinkert, 2016 ). Moreover, executive coaching can be used to help executives modify their style, adjust to change, manage developmental efforts, and avoid or deal with derailment issues. Executives are often faced with such challenges as preparing for advancement, dealing with performance issues, and building on their areas of strength. Thus, executive coaches support their clients' efforts to develop adaptive work behaviors. Executive coaching may take numerous forms. Notable among these include life coaching, behavioral coaching, career coaching, leadership development coaching, organizational change coaching, and strategy coaching. It is due to this topical breadth that the duration of executive coaching relationships may vary from a single or several meetings to several years.
Executive coaching comes in handy in scenarios where executives are likely to trigger conflict or propagate destructive conflict. This way, a client's external and internal conflicts are understood in the context of combined systems and psychodynamic approaches ( Brinkert, 2016 ). Conflict coaching can also be applied by those working from a therapeutic point of view. In this case, the concept can be used to help executives effect change, manage limits and boundaries, deal with moral and spiritual issues, and lastly, value diversity. Kets de Vries (2005) reckons that executive coaching can be pursued from a psychotherapeutic perspective. In this light, the author combined the concepts of coaching and conflict in implementing group-based leadership coaching. He also proposed that executing leadership coaching in group settings had its benefits. Notable among these was that it made effective conflict resolution possible.
Conflict-based coaching plays a fundamental role in the field of executive coaching. This is because conflict cannot be decoupled from the work world of executives. Specifically, managerial work is founded on the basis of an executive’s ability to cope with external and internal organizational issues. Undoubtedly, these problems are associated with human conflict in one way or the other ( Brinkert, 2016 ). It is this narrative that makes executive coaching a critical aspect of conflict coaching.
Conflict resolution is the other important area of conflict coaching that was first formalized at Macquarie University ( Keel, 2013; Brinkert, 2016 ) . The process entailed a six-step model that was based on generating multiple solutions. A process of costing would then be used in selecting the most optimal solutions. However, it is in 1996 that Philadelphia’s Temple University named conflict coaching as such while actively practicing it. Conflict coaching was developed when the university realized that its conflict resolution program was characterized by diminished demand for mediation. Due to this intervention, conflict coaching emerged as one of the most promoted and embraced conflict-related services within the campus community ( Brinkert, 2016 ). In the entire 90s, Temple University limited conflict coaching to conflict styles coaching. This changed in the 2000s when the university expanded the program to include other subtypes. These additional subtypes included coaching for diversity, confrontation, and as a means of preparing for mediation. The university has ever since maintained conflict coaching as a vital conflict resolution service.
Conflict coaching experienced tremendous growth from the year 2000. Part of this growth included variations in the concept’s definition and application. For instance, the concept was used in the context of interventions made between teams. In other instances, the behaviors and skills associated with sports coaches were deemed useful in the area of mediation. This led to requests for wholesale conflict coaching training. This group-based training was aimed at assisting various professionals whose work involved resolving conflicts with clients ( Brinkert, 2016 ). This modified form of conflict coaching found application in different government agencies. The targeted employees included those involved in dealing with potentially violent situations.
The significance of conflict coaching as a one-on-one process cannot be overstated. The 2000s were characterized by increased adoption of conflict coaching by both for-profit and non-profit conflict resolution individuals and organizations. The creation of an annual conference solely dedicated to conflict resolution exemplifies the field’s growth. The adoption of conflict coaching by top-ranked organizations also showed that the intervention was a valued and recognizable intervention process. In this case, coaching was adopted as a core conflict resolution system by numerous organizations ( Keel, 2013; Gadlin , 2014 ; Brinkert, 2016 ) . Companies were advised to use escalating conflicts as opportunities for coaching. Companies such as IBM went ahead to train their executives on conflict management. They were also offered online resources to help coach others. Coaching was also by government, education, and health care entities, among other core sectors ( Brinkert, 2016 ). Conflict coaching plays a vital role in helping individuals build leadership competency. In this regard, it may be useful for professionals involved in such initiatives as human resources development and training development, among others.
The application of conflict coaching has become more varied in recent years. Several conflict coaching models have emerged and gained significant traction. These include the Thomas-Kilman Conflict Mode Instrument (TKI) and the comprehensive conflict coaching model (CCC) (Brinkert, 2006; Noble, 2012; Keel, 2013; Brinkert, 2016 ). In these models, the emphasis is placed on the relationship between integrated conflict management systems and conflict coaching. Conflict management systems, in this case, refer to the practice and philosophy of utilizing numerous methods to resolve conflicts while organizing these methods holistically. These models can be used before, during, and post-mediation.
Thomas-Kilman Conflict Mode Instrument and Comprehensive Conflict Coaching Model
Both TKI and CCC models are closely related. The TKI was first used in Temple University’s conflict resolution program. The model was aimed at helping participants comprehend how their conflict styles varied based on the type of conflict in question ( Keel, 2013) . It then helped these individuals to improve their respective conflict styles. The TKI underwent numerous revisions and expansions following its launch at Temple University. These improvements culminated in the development of the CCC model ( Gross, 2010; Keel, 2013) . Thus, it can be argued that the CCC is an extension of the TKI.
The TKI is used in assessing an individual’s behavior in conflict situations with that of another person who is involved in similar situations. The TKI uses the two dimensions proposed by the Dual Concerns Mode l to achieve this. These include cooperativeness and assertiveness ( Keel, 2013 ). The TKI then proceeds to identify five critical modes of handling conflict based on the relationship between the two dimensions. The five possible conflict-handling modes include avoiding, compromising, accommodating, collaborating, and competing ( Keel, 2013). Each of these conflict styles is appropriate in particular situations. Nevertheless, individuals are likely to embrace a style that they are comfortable with irrespective of its appropriateness in specific situations. Thus, the TKI helps individuals in assessing their effectiveness in utilizing the chosen conflict styles.
The CCC model, on the other hand, is anchored on social constructionist and systems perspectives. The former draws its influence from appreciative inquiry and narrative theory. This conflict coaching model assumes that conflict is based on communication ( Brinkert, 2016 ). Consequently, the model features an initial conversation, four key stages, and a parallel learning assessment process. The four stages include the discovery of the story; exploring three critical perspectives, namely power, emotion, and identity; crafting an ideal story; and lastly, enacting this ideal story. In the first stage, the conflict coach helps his or her client in constructing a conflict narrative. This initial narrative is representative of the client’s personal experience with conflict. Assisted by the coach, the client refines this narrative to ensure that it is inclusive of detailed information about the conflict. The coach also encourages the client to consider perspectives from the second party involved in the conflict. Lastly, the client and coach have to test the narrative by paying closer attention to the facts presented in the narrative and the assumptions made by the client regarding the other party.
In the second stage of the CCC model, the conflict narrative is analyzed. This is achieved through an exploration of the roles played by power, emotion, and identity in the conflict. It is also achieved by exploring the understanding of the client about his or her relationship with the other party involved in the conflict. The third stage draws from the appreciative inquiry ( Gross, 2010; Keel, 2013). This stage entails the development of a narrative about the conflict's future outcome. This narrative is aimed at helping identify the most important issue to the client in a conflict’s outcome. For example, the future narrative about a workplace conflict for a client may be reflective of the fact that the client is increasingly concerned about keeping his or her job. This is as opposed to maintaining the relationships that he or she has developed in the workplace that are now constrained by a conflict. Likewise, the narrative could be reflective of the fact that the client attaches more value to the maintenance of these relationships as opposed to keeping his or her job.
By paying more attention to the maintenance of relationships, the client reckons that the network of individuals created in the workplace presents more opportunities for advancement and is likely to help him or her achieve professional or personal goals in the future. The narrative created does not necessarily need to include one aspect while excluding the other ( Keel, 2013). Nevertheless, it is important for a client to identify the outcomes that he or she deems to be the most important in case a tough decision has to be made by deciding between two or more outcomes. The last stage of the CCC model entails the identification and development of skills that would best equip the client, allowing him or her to not only effectively engage in conflict but also achieve the most preferred outcome.
D iscussion of F indings
The advent of conflict coaching in the 90s has undoubtedly enhanced the resolution of conflicts in different contexts. Conflict coaching began as a secondary process since its adoption started when mediation was not considered an option by conflicting parties ( Brinkert, 2006; Noble, 2012; Keel, 2013; Brinkert, 2016 ). Thus, the concept was initially considered a secondary or tertiary practice for individuals primarily trained in such conflict resolution processes as mediation. Since the 90s, conflict coaching has emerged as a distinct process whose emphasis is skill development and conflict engagement while taking into account the contributions of other professional and academic disciplines. This has also led to the development of various conflict coaching models, including the TKI and CCC.
Clarity has been offered on the similarities and differences between conflict coaches and executive coaches. For instance, the latter's work may involve exploration or discussion of conflict. However, they do not cover effective engagement in conflict situations; neither do they focus on developing conflict engagement skills ( Keel, 2013). There is a consensus that building upon this distinction followed by recognizing when and how to engage once a conflict arises in the workings of other disciplines aids in identifying the fields of practice that provide for the development or integration of conflict coaching as a specialty.
Executive coaching is aimed at, among other goals, fostering effective management of conflict. Key focus areas for this conflict coaching field include the development of key managerial skills within an executive's role, effective leadership, and development of an executive's ability to achieve the outlined organizational goals ( Keel, 2013; Brinkert, 2016 ). Executive coaches may adopt varying roles and approaches. These roles and approaches have a tremendous influence on conflict coaching. In this regard, approaches to coaching may be system-oriented, person-centred, cognitive therapeutic, behaviorist, or psychodynamic.
Critiqu e of the T heory and its A pplications
It is undeniable that from a practice perspective, conflict coaching has achieved a status similar to that of such alternative dispute resolution processes as mediation. However, the establishment and popularity of conflict coaching do not stop its reliance on and support of the integrated dispute resolution systems. Instead, there is a need to acknowledge that the indirect and direct strengths of conflict coaching are derived from the quality of the broader dispute structure in which it is situated. This implies that conflict coaching cannot be decoupled from integrated dispute systems (Brinkert, 2016).
Conflict coaching has been touted as the most effective and appropriate process of analyzing conflicts. However, this does not imply that it surpasses such processes as mediation in value. In some practice areas like the ombuds, conflict coaching is likely to continue playing a routine but secondary function. This implies that the rise of conflict coaching should not be perceived as a threat by proponents of other conflict resolution processes. Instead, the rise of should be understood in the context of integrated conflict management systems.
Even though conflict coaching and mediation have been deemed equal in the context of practical and theoretical adoption standpoints, they are dissimilar with regard to research substantiation (Brinkert, 2016). The fact that attainment of goals in coaching is enhanced when clients decide on the goals implies that conflict coaching researchers, theorists, and practitioners need to focus on mechanisms via which clients are either hindered or fostered from setting goals in conflict coaching processes. The conflict coaching community also needs to pay close attention to the ethical codes that inform its operations to ensure that they are relevant and do not act as barriers to performance. This can only be addressed fully through research and theory.
Summary and Recommendations
The TKI and CCC are undoubtedly some of the key models used in conflict coaching. Nevertheless, other models exist, with some being hybrids. The dyadic conflict coaching processes enjoy unprecedented adoption. However, given their dominance and the ineffectiveness of employing such conflict resolution processes like meditation, the conflict resolution field ought to deliberately move beyond ‘mediation-centrism.’ This is mainly the case when conflict coaching entails upholding a vital principle of alternative dispute resolution by ensuring that those directly involved in the conflict process are kept as close as possible.
There is a need to continuously compare and contrast the relationships that exist between different conflict coaching models. This theoretical expansion is vital in ensuring that the models are applied effectively. The theoretical expansion is also vital, owing to the increased diversity of conflict coaching. Ultimately, the expansion would ensure that both coaches and clients have clarity as regards the nature of conflict coaching being applied at any particular time. This expansion has to cover such areas as the ethics, confidentiality, and transparency that surround conflict coaching.
Executive coaching and conflict resolution communities are characterized by ideological and demographic diversity. Those already served and potential clients are also considerably diverse. In this regard, there is a need to adjust existing conflict coaching models and create additional ones. For instance, conflict coaching can be extended to cover family and personal life spheres. Further, a lag exists between the sharp rise of conflict coaching and the scholarly study associated with it. To fill this gap, more research has to be carried out on conflict coaching methods and processes. This is particularly true given that any works done on recent developments in conflict coaching will not offer credible support for continued practice in the coming years. In this regard, practitioners, sponsors, and clients ought to partner with researchers in evaluating existing and possible conflict coaching intervention efforts. Studies should also be carried out in controlled settings.
There is a need to embrace recent insights from the fields of executive coaching and conflict resolution. For instance, the strategies and challenges of expert mediators can be adapted then applied by expert conflict coaches. Insights on benefits of coaching as documented by managers coupled with insights on the conditions that make coaching effective can be used in deciding the individuals that are best placed to be conflict coaches as well as how they can maximize their role. New avenues of disseminating knowledge on conflict resolution and related issues ought to be explored.
Developing a conflict coaching specialty would come in handy in the advancement of the field. This specialty should embrace both organizational and individual concerns. Such a process entails supporting individuals in their respective careers while at the same time ensuring that the individuals uphold their fiduciary responsibilities and advance their organizations. However, care has to be taken to ensure that issues associated with the transparency of practice and distinctions among different forms of practice have to be taken into account.
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