Part 1: Introduction
Cross-Cultural research involves a comparative study across cultures to answer various research questions. The comparison of the cultures helps the researchers to validate a theory or answer specific research questions. This paper will critically analyze a cross-cultural research article to determine how culture was incorporated into the study. The paper will also discuss the influence that culture had in the research findings. Also, ideas on how to improve the research to enable positive social change will be given.
The cross-cultural research article that I will analyze is titled 'Psychological Maladjustment Mediates the Relation between Remembrances of Parental Rejection in Childhood and Adult's Fear of Intimacy: A Multicultural Study. The article has been authored by 28 researchers who combined their knowledge from various disciplines in social sciences to conduct the research. The authors include Ronald P. Rohner, an Anthropology professor at the University of Connecticut, Ania Filus, a research associate in Economic and Social Research from the University of South California and Tatiana Melendez-Rhodes, assistant professor and marriage and family therapist at Central Connecticut State University. All 28 authors have an understanding of various disciplines in social sciences. Their contributions to the research helped to make the study a success.
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Description of the Study
The purpose of the research was to evaluate the validity of the interpersonal acceptance-rejection theory (IPARTheory). The theory proposes that an adult's fear of intimacy can be attributed to the remembrances of parental rejection during childhood (Dwairy, 2010). The theory further suggests that the relationship between the two is reconciled by psychological instability and relationship anxiety of the adult. The study, therefore, aimed to test the validity of these predictions. Also, the research aimed to determine whether gender, culture, language, and ethnicity have any impact on the outcome suggested by the theory.
To achieve this objective, three research questions were used to collect data for the study. The first research question sought to determine the link between adults’ fear of intimacy and their remembrance of parental rejection or acceptance. The second question helped to assess the role of psychological instability and anxiety in mediating fear of intimacy with childhood rejection. The last question helped to determine whether these general predictions vary across cultures, ethnicity, and gender (Rohner, Filus, et al. 2019). The questions were drawn from the IPRATheory to test it across different cultural setups. The research was done in 13 countries with 3,483 young adults participating in the study.
The primary problem addressed in the study is the fear of intimacy. IPRATheory describes the fear of intimacy as the reluctance by an individual to exchange deep intimate feelings with other people. People with a fear of intimacy feel vulnerable when they share personal information (Dwairy, 2010). This prevents these individuals from forming intimate relationships, even with their significant others. The fear of intimacy leads to unhealthy relationships. Partners to individuals with intimacy issues find it hard to be in a close relationship with them.
Individuals with this problem are cautious about engaging in intimate relationships due to the fear of rejection by their significant others. They have low self-esteem due to the misleading depictions about themselves and their partners. Several studies indicate that fear of intimacy can be triggered by psychological abuse during childhood. Parental acceptance and care have been linked severally by researchers to more fulfilling intimate relationships in adulthood.
Part 2: Methods and Design
The research design and methodology used in conducting research is crucial to the success of the study. A research design gives a systematic approach that a researcher can use to carry out the study. The design helps to synchronize the different components and data of the research to ensure a conclusive outcome of the study. A research design should follow strategic research methods that provide accurate and authentic results are acquired.
The cross-cultural research that I chose generally used the correlational research approach. The study sought to find out the association between two variables. The two variables, in this case, were the remembrance of parental rejection during childhood and fear of intimacy in adults. The study, therefore, aimed to make a cross-cultural comparison to discover the association of these two variables. Statistical analysis done across various cultural groups was used to determine this association.
The research methodology used in this cross-cultural research was primarily quantitative mixed with a qualitative approach. This research approach is known as a mixed-methods research methodology that combines the components of qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Mixed research method involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of both qualitative and quantitative data in single research (Leech, & Onwuegbuzie, 2009). This ensures a comprehensive investigation of the underlying concept to ensure the outcome of the research. There are a few pointers in this research that leads to this conclusion.
First, the study made use of short-form questionnaires, where the 3483 participants were expected to respond to similar questions. The study involved 13 countries, and the respondents belonged to the same age group. Variables such as gender, language, and cultural setup were used as defining conditions that would influence the outcome of the association between the two variables in the study. Statistical data were recorded into tables where male and female respondents were grouped separately for comparison. Most of the participants were students in various institutions of higher learning and vocational colleges. The use of questionnaires, Fear of Intimacy Scale, and Revised Personal Information forms to collect statistical data for analysis is quantitative (Karasz, & Singelis, 2009). The study, therefore, used quantitative research methodology to a great extent.
Secondly, the study was conducted across 13 countries which bring the aspect of a cross-cultural variable in making comparisons. The third research question aimed to identify the influence of variables such as culture, gender, and ethnicity. The aim was to determine the significance of these variables on the association between fear of intimacy in adults and childhood rejection. Developmental processes can have a significant impact on the outcome of social behavior, and this research made use of a qualitative approach to study these variables (TRANSLER, SUKUMAR, & RAO, 2008). For instance, descriptive statistics were tabulated for all individuals considering culture and gender.
Informed consent was the primary consideration that the researchers made in the course of the study. The researchers were required to follow the set ethical guidelines to ensure the respondents were well informed of the purpose of the study. Informed consent from the participants approved by the institutional review board ensured the success and validity of the study. The respondents need to participate in the study voluntarily and knowingly to ensure credibility of the data collected.
Part 3: Culture within Research
The researchers incorporated the nature of culture within their study in several ways.
How the nature of culture was incorporated in the study
Culture is described as a set of beliefs, values, and attitudes that are unique to a particular society. These components of culture are transmitted from one generation to the other within a specific cultural group. Culture may change with time as the society gets exposed to new practices through cultural interactions. The cultural background of an individual has a significant impact on his or her behavior patterns. The researchers acknowledged this fact and therefore did the study in several cultures. Several measures were used to ensure the aspect of culture and its influence on social behavior was incorporated into the study.
The measures aimed to describe various forms of social behavior portrayed by an individual and how these behaviors vary across cultures. The first measure that was used is the Adult Parent Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire (PARQ; short form) for mothers and fathers (Rohner, Filus, et al. 2019) . The questionnaire aimed to determine how adults recall acceptance and rejection experiences in their childhood. The questionnaire measured the memories of the respondents about their parents' behavior towards them in their infancy. Behavior patterns shown by the patents (Mother and Father) such as affection, hostility, indifference, and neglect were used to describe the parents' love or rejection. The perceived parental acceptance or rejection varied across cultures. For instance, indifference experience responses in childhood were very high in Iran from both mothers and fathers compared to Croatia. Rejection responses were lower in most other countries (Rohner, Filus, et al. 2019). Respondents from countries in the Middle East region reported higher experiences of rejection than most other countries. This difference can be attributed to cultural beliefs and values in the area where parents are more likely to be emotionally absent for their children.
The second measure used by the researchers, which incorporates culture into the study is the Adult Personality Assessment Questionnaire (PAQ; short form). This assessment tool was used to assess seven personalities that are influenced by the experience of acceptance or rejection during childhood. These personality dispositions measured included impaired self-esteem, emotional unresponsiveness, emotional stability, or instability, among others (Rohner, Filus, et al. 2019). A cross-cultural comparison was also made to evaluate the influence of culture on behavioral outcomes. Iran and Portuguese respondents recorded the highest levels of emotional instability compared to most other countries. Once again, cultural background played a significant role in influencing behavioral patterns in adult individuals.
The third measure used by the researchers is the Interpersonal Relationship Anxiety Questionnaire (IRAQ). This measure was designed to evaluate feelings of anxiety in the respondents in their social relationships. Respondents were expected to reply to indicate how they feel in the context of their social interactions with other members of society. Some respondents indicated that they would sometimes feel fearful even when not apprehended with an appalling situation (Rohner, Filus, et al. 2019). The responses varied across cultural setups which formed a basis for cultural comparison. Also, the researchers used the Fear for Intimacy Scale (FOS) to gather statistical data for cross-cultural research. Participants across cultures were subjected to this measure to determine their fear of intimacy in romantic relationships. The scores were recorded on a scale of 5, where the higher the score meant more top experiences of anxiety in intimate relationships (Rohner, Filus, et al. 2019). Once again, the scores were higher for Iranian participants than for most others from the rest of the countries involved in the research. This measure also helped to incorporate the nature of culture and its influence on social behavior in this study.
The use of these measures in the cross-cultural research was a significant step towards incorporation of cultural influence in the study. Analysis of the statistical data shows variances in responses across the cultural groups, which is an indication that human behavior can be influenced by culture. Also, social behavior patterns such as hostility, dependence, self-adequacy, and emotional responsiveness were used as instruments of the research. This indicates that the researchers were interested to understand the cross-cultural influence on social behavior. This aspect of culture is incorporated into the study as a qualitative research technique that aims to make a cultural comparison of social behavior.
The conclusion made by the researchers is that acceptance or rejection during childhood has a significant impact on the level of fear of intimacy in grownups. Also, the psychological Maladjustment and anxiety mediate the link between fear of intimacy and childhood experiences of rejection (Rohner, Filus, et al., 2019). This agrees with the IPARTheory which formed the hypotheses of the research. The research article also mentions that cross-cultural comparison achieved through conducting the study in several countries was a significant strength of the study.
However, the researchers did not incorporate the influence of culture in the study’s conclusion, which is the critical part of any research. The discussion does not make broad conclusions on how culture influenced the research outcomes. Incorporation of cultural influence on the research findings in the discussion and conclusion should have been a crucial part of the study. The researchers incorporated the nature of culture in the tabulated data and research methods but failed to make it part of the conclusion. Also, the cross-cultural analysis of the influence that culture had on the research findings is superficially mentioned in the data analysis. The researchers did not critically analyze the variance in responses across cultures. This would have enabled them to conclusively evaluate the role of culture on the behavior outcome of individuals across cultures.
The researchers would have incorporated the influence of culture better in the research in the analysis section of the study. The analysis of the statistical data should have included an evaluation as to why there is evident variation in the responses to the questionnaires across different cultures. This would have prompted the researchers to do more studies on the cultural beliefs, values, and practices of each cultural group in the context of social behavior. The 13 countries have different cultures which are a possible explanation for the variation in response among individuals.
If given a chance to improve on their research, I would suggest that the researchers broaden their questionnaires to include questions that would enable them to understand the cultural backgrounds of the participants. This would give the researchers more specific information about the cultural beliefs and practices which would be essential in comparing behavior patterns across the cultures. This would facilitate positive social change in that it would promote appreciation and understanding of different cultures. This would have a significant impact on human interactions across cultures as individuals appreciate and respect the culture of other people. Also, the research would be able to identify cultural practices that discourage healthy social behavior development and offer practical solutions to the issue.
References
Dwairy, M. (2010). Parental acceptance–rejection: a fourth cross-cultural research on parenting and psychological adjustment of children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(1), 30-35.
Karasz, A., & Singelis, T. M. (2009). Qualitative and mixed methods research in cross-cultural psychology.
Leech, N. L., & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2009). A typology of mixed methods research designs. Quality & quantity, 43(2), 265-275.
Rohner, R. P., Filus, A., Melendez-Rhodes, T., Kuyumcu, B., Machado, F., Roszak, J., ... & Ashdown, B. K. (2019). Psychological Maladjustment Mediates the Relation Between Remembrances of Parental Rejection in Childhood and Adults’ Fear of Intimacy: A Multicultural Study. Cross-Cultural Research, 1069397118822992.
TRANSLER, C., SUKUMAR, P., & RAO, K. (2008). Adapting a cognitive test for a different culture: An illustration of qualitative procedures.
