This research will focus on how the masculinity and femininity cultural dimension influences goals and values of international education at the Dutch IB and those of the international education of American IB schools. In this introduction, the six dimensions of culture according to Hofstede will be described. However, for this research, emphasis will be laid on the masculinity dimension of culture. Therefore, the masculinity and femininity cultural dimension for the two countries will be identified and compared .
One of the most effective ways to begin learning about a particular country is by considering how it compares with other global location in terms of well-known cultural dimensions. The various dimension of culture include power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long term orientation and indulgence (Zhang et al., 2014). Power distance, as one of the cultural dimensions, deals with the idea that all individuals in the society are not equal. Therefore, power distance significantly expresses the attitude of the culture toward the power inequalities in the society. As such, power distance can be best described as the degree to which the less powerful members of organisations and institutions within a particular country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally. Individualism addresses the issue regarding the degree of interdependence a particular society maintains among its members. Masculinity refers to the extent a society will be driven by competition, achievement and success. In this case, success is defined by the best in the field. Uncertainty avoidance refers to the way that a society deals with the idea that the future is marred by uncertainty. As such, the dimension defines how the members of a given society feel threatened by unknown situations. Long term orientation describes how a particular society has to maintain some links to its own past while dealing with the present and future challenges. Finally, indulgence defines the extent to which members of a given society try to control their impulse and desires by exercising restrain.
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Comparing US and Netherlands
Figure 1. The Cultural dimensions of the Netherland and the US compared. Source: Hofstede (2017).
The cultural dimension of masculinity will be singled out in order to determine its influence on the goals and values of education in IB schools in America and Netherlands. Masculinity is considered to have some impact on the nature of goals and values of education in international education (Laverty, 2010). A comparison of the masculinity scores of the two countries indicates a sharp contrast between the two cultures. While the masculinity score of the United States is high at 62, the masculinity score of Netherlands is significantly low at 14. The comparison suggests that the culture of United States is driven by competition, achievement, and success. As such, the Americans’ behaviour in school, work, and play are most likely focused on the shared values that individuals should strive to be the best they can be. Therefore, the members of the American society tend to display and talk freely about how successful they are. On the contrary, Netherlands’ low score of 14 indicates that the dominant values in the society are most likely quality of life and caring for others. Therefore, according to the perceptions of Geert Hofstede, Netherland is seen as a feminine society and it tends to place importance on keeping life/work balance and aims to ensures that all members are included.
The goals and values of education in IB-schools
IB schools refer to a non-profit educational foundation offering for highly respected programs of international education that develop the personal, intellectual, emotional and social skills essential for living, learning and working in a rapidly globalising world. The courses include language acquisition, individuals and societies, sciences and arts. Marie-Therese Maurette influenced the creation of the framework for what would eventually become the IB Diploma Program in 1948. During the mid-1960s, a group of teachers from the International School of Geneva created the International Schools Examination Syndicate, which would later lead to the establishment of IB schools. Currently, IB schools offer education to more than a million students in 146 countries across the world (IBO, 2013). Registered and approved IB schools have the same values. The various values of IB schools include teamwork, open mindedness, inquiry, critical and creative thinking, integrity and honesty, fairness and justice, risk taking, compassion, and resilience (IBO, 2013). IB is all about in-depth discussions that are largely controlled by students. It has gained much global popularity for emphasising critical and creative thinking and setting high standards. Additionally, IB students are expected to be responsible for their own learning, devising their own projects and choosing topics (Drake, 2004). As such, the teachers act more as mentors or supervisors as opposed to being sources of facts. Furthermore, IB places more importance on research and encourages teamwork and collaboration among students.
This paper focuses on how the masculinity and femininity cultural dimension influences goals and values of international education at the Dutch IB and those of the international education of American IB schools. The main research question is “How does the cultural dimension of masculinity according to Hofstede’s cultural dimension influence the goals and values of the international education at IB schools in the US and the Netherlands?” It is considered that the level of Hofstede’s cultural dimension of masculinity of the teachers could influence the goals and values of IB schools in both Netherland and America. As such, the cultural dimension of masculinity is likely to influence the international education in America and the Netherlands.
Methodology
Participants
This study adopts the qualitative approach to research. Specifically, eight teachers were asked on their teaching experiences based on the Hofstede's cultural dimension of masculinity. The aspect of comparison of the effect of the cultural dimension of masculinity between the US and the Netherlands is based on the fact that all eight teachers have experience teaching in the Netherlands and USA.
| gender | age | Teaching experience (years) | Position | |
| Teacher 1 | Male | 35 | 6 | Exam coordinator |
| Teacher 2 | Female | 43 | 8 | Teacher of English language |
| Teacher 3 | Male | 45 | 11 | Department of the social studies department |
| Teacher 4 | Female | 43 | 9 | Math teacher |
| Teacher 5 | Male | 46 | 8 | Teacher of English |
| Teacher 6 | Male | 37 | 7 | Music teacher |
| Teacher 7 | Female | 43 | 10 | Head of the math department |
| Teacher 8 | Female | 38 | 9 | Teacher of Spanish |
Table 1: the profile of respondents used in the study
School context
The study took place in a Dutch IB school, at Amstelveen and the teachers recruited in this study work in different positions within the school such as heads of departments, Spanish and English language teachers, and an exam coordinator. The school had been in existence since 1964 when it started as a primary school, but has grown to provide secondary education alongside primary education to the 1700 students from more than 65 nationalities that it currently serves. The school prides on having a strong school mission, which reads, “The International School Amsterdam, founded in 1964, continues to be a leader in education for international understanding – inspiring our diverse community of students to learn and live with purpose. ISA was the first school in the world to offer all three core IB programmes, and it continues to do so today. Our challenging academic curriculum embraces global perspectives and respects the identity, experiences and aspirations of individual students. Our strengths lie within our diverse community, world-class faculty and facilities, innovative teaching practices, and confident, engaged students.”
Materials
The research used interviews to collect primary data from teachers in the international school in the Netherlands. The interview was done after the researcher developed a questionnaire containing both closed and open-ended questions. The questions used in the data collection required the respondents to give perception of the values of IB schools in both nations, represented by questions about group work, resilience, and compassion. The three structured questions supplement the main research question, which asked the respondents to give their views concerning whether or not the cultural dimension of masculinity affects the goals of international IB schools in the US and NL and are found in the appendix.
Procedure
The researcher collected primary data using individual interviews with the eight respondents from the international IB school. The questions were asked to the respondents who gave open-ended responses to question 2b and agreed or disagreed and the extend to which they did, i.e. either strongly or not strongly for questions 1a, 2a, 3a, and 3b and positively, negatively or neutral to 1 and yes or no to question 2b while the researcher recorded their voices using the voice recorder on her mobile phone. First, the researcher contacted the principal of the school to inform them of the purpose of the research and ask for permission to collect data from the school and the teachers. After the researcher received a response from the school, she designed her questionnaire and prepared for the interview. The interview were done on a face-to-face basis with the teachers whose profiles are given in table 1 above, which allowed the researcher to elaborate on confusing terms. For example, before the interviews took part the respondents were informed about the meaning of Hofstede’s cultural dimension of masculinity to ensure that they realised the difference with the gender roles of masculinity/ femininity.
Data analysis
The data collected was then processed by analysing the themes in the responses given. The sample size used in this study was quite small, which allowed for an easy grouping of the respondents’ answers given for each of the questions that required respondents to agree or disagree.
Results
Table 2:. Closed answers
| Teacher | Question 1a | Question 1b | Question 2a | Question 3a | Question 3b |
| 1 | Agree | Positively | agree | agree | Agree |
| 2 | Neutral | Neutral | Neutral | Agree | Agree |
| 3 | Agree | Positively | Agree | agree | Agree |
| 4 | Strongly agree | Positively | Strongly agree | agree | Disagree |
| 5 | Agree | Positively | Strongly agree | agree | Agree |
| 6 | Agree | Positively | Agree | Agree | Agree |
| 7 | Agree | Positively | Agree | Agree | Agree |
| 8 | Agree | Positively | Agree | agree | Agree |
Table 3: Open answers
| Teacher | Question 2b: values of education at IB schools |
| 1 | Students exhibit team work, compassion and resilience, but it is more in the NL than it is in the US because it is thought that the education system requires them to both work hard and care for the rest. They should always learn to be the best in their classes, but still promote togetherness. |
| 2 | Students show the rest of the characteristics, but do not have much resilience. She supposed that resilience was quite difficult to attain since it was a life-long aspect of development, which was not only shaped by the education system but also by the dominant societal factors. |
| 3 | Compassion is not a common feature of the students at the US schools, but the rest of the features are common because the students are always busy on their studies and dealing with the pressure to succeed. |
| 4 | Believes the students exhibit teamwork, compassion and resilience better in the NL than the US. As much as the students need to be the best in what they do, it could be quite unfulfilling for them if they did not know exactly what they want in life, which is why education should guide them towards developing a proper understanding of what they would like to be. |
| 5 | Believes the students exhibit team work, compassion and resilience in the NL and less of them in the US because the societal values of the US do not allow more communal approach to solving issues, and that it was incorporated into the education system |
| 6 | The students are resilient, compassionate and value teamwork because the cultural aspect of masculinity shapes their development of such values |
| 7 | The students are resilient, compassionate and value teamwork |
| 8 | Students exhibit teamwork, compassion, and resilience because they are values of societal life, which the education system seeks to promote in both nations. |
Discussion
Influence of Cultural Dimension of Masculinity on Goals of International Education in IB Schools
The research paper seeks to answer the question, “how does the cultural dimension of masculinity according to Hofstede’s cultural dimension influence the goals and values of the international education at IB schools in the US and the Netherlands?” The respondents were asked to comment on whether the cultural dimension of masculinity influenced the goals of international education in IB Schools. Most of the teachers (5) had problems determining what the research question meant by masculinity and wanted a distinction between the gender and masculine characteristics. On further elaboration, it was determined that seven of the eight respondents used in the study agreed that the cultural dimension of masculinity affected the goals of education at the IB schools. All the four male respondents and three female respondents indicated that the cultural dimension under investigation affected the goals of education in both nations. In addition, it is notable that all the respondents that agreed to this perception reported that the phenomenon was more expressed in the US than it was in the Netherlands. These finding correspondents to the findings of the Hofstede’s research on cultural dimensions that identified the US as being more masculine than the Netherlands.
Specifically research question number 2 focused on the values of IB schools: the aspect of compassion, resilience, and teamwork. The respondents indicated that masculinity has an effect on all the investigated aspects since six of the respondents indicated that when the education values embody the cultural dimension of masculinity, it results in an effect on the perceptions of the students towards the three qualities. For example, the teachers considered that teamwork was an attribute that was more related to the cultural dimension of the Netherlands than it was for the US since the Netherlands was a more feminine nation than the US. One of the teachers, a male reported, “The students in the states are cultured to take their education as a personal responsibility, and their curriculum emphasises this aspect because grades are all that matter…” The students in the Netherlands, therefore, according to the findings from the eight interviews, were seen as more compassionate than those in the US. The Teachers, who all had teaching experiences in both nations, reported that the curriculums of the two nations were even designed to explore the differences observed. For example, all the teachers indicated that US curriculum was based more on the value of the grades scored by the students than that in the Netherlands, which caused the students to believe that being the best in all the aspects of life was a major driving force in life. Specifically, one of the respondents said, “In the States, students have to be the best in their groups, and score better in assignments than others.” However, to this, one of the respondents considered that having the mentality of being the best would be more unfulfilling for individuals than desiring communal success.
The main goal of IB Schools is to develop inquiring, caring, and knowledgeable young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect (IBO, 2013). The respondents were interviewed on whether the cultural dimension of masculinity actually affected such a noble goal. The result indicates that, according to the 8 respondents, cultural dimension of masculinity influences goals of international education in IB Schools. Most of the respondents were of the opinion that the cultural dimension of masculinity influenced goals of international education in IB Schools in US and Netherlands. The respondents explained that the cultural dimension of masculinity influenced the attitudes, motivations, and values of people in the society. For example, one of the respondents said, “ Students exhibit team work, compassion and resilience because they are values of societal life, which the education system seeks to promote in.”
Compassion is among the values of international education in IB schools. Thus, the respondents were interviewed on whether their students were seen as compassionate or not. On whether the students in the school were compassionate, it was established that masculinity affected the development of compassion among the students in both nations. For instance, the respondents indicated that students in the Netherlands were more compassionate than those in the US, which according to one of the respondents, related to the variations in the systems of education. Specifically, the responded said, “ Compassion is not a common feature of the students at the US schools, but the rest of the features are common because the students are always busy on their studies and dealing with the pressure to succeed .” It means that the significance of this observation borrows reference from what the teachers reported about the structures of the curriculums of the two nations. Specifically, the teachers reported that the students in the American context were cultured to be more competitive in each of the aspects of their learning, which spared them little time to develop compassionate tendencies for each other. In fact, this conclusion draws from the fact that the teachers who thought that masculinity affected the goals of international education at the IB schools also found their students resilient, and they reported more resilience in the American context than the US context. The study, therefore, finds a relation between the cultural dimension of masculinity and resilience, which could explain why the respondent who remained neutral concerning the influence of the cultural dimension on the goals of international education also indicated that they were undecided about the aspect of resilience.
Teamwork is also one of the values of international education in IB Schools. The respondents were interviewed on whether students practiced teamwork at school. This is because according to IBO (2013) , the masculinity cultural dimension may tend to influence teamwork among individuals. The results imply that the students in the Dutch IB School practice more teamwork than their counterparts in the US do. The feminine society of Netherlands is considered to exhibit supportiveness and involvement in everything they do even in the workplace. Therefore, the dominant values in the Dutch society such as caring for others and the emphasis on quality of life may help to promote the value of teamwork among the students in the Dutch IB School. As such, the feminine society the Dutch educational system has embodied this as part of its system of teaching, which is why the students practice teamwork at the Dutch IB School. On the contrary, the results indicate that the students in the US IB School show a low level of teamwork. This is because the masculine society in the US promotes an individualist drive according to Hofstede and McCrae(2004). Such an individualist drive may prompt the students to carry out tasks on their own in order to demonstrate how they can be best in what they do. As such, the students may seek to be recognised individually as opposed to as a group. This attitude could undermine the value of teamwork among the students in the US IB School.
It was not easy to determine whether masculinity affected the perceptions of the teachers about the need to care for each other in the society. For instance, while one respondent remained neutral concerning the effects of the cultural dimension being studied, she agreed with them on the need to care for each other. This finding, although based on one respondent, could imply that there is no relation between masculinity and the value of caring for each other, though the study does not establish why.
Summary
The research study established that the cultural dimension of masculinity influences the goals and values of international education in IB Schools in the US and the Netherlands. The respondents who took part in the research confirmed that the culturally masculine US society and the culturally feminine Dutch society influenced the goals and values of international education in the IB Schools in both countries. Registered and approved IB schools have certain goals and values in general. Therefore, both IB Schools have the same goals and values. The main goal of IB Schools is to develop inquiring, caring, and knowledgeable young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect. The various values of IB schools include teamwork, open mindedness, inquiry, critical and creative thinking, integrity and honesty, fairness and justice, risk taking, compassion, and resilience. The results showed that the students in the Dutch IB School practiced more teamwork and exhibited compassion more than their US counterparts according to the respondents. The research also established that the US educational system appears to promote the cultural dimension of masculinity more than that of the NL
Conclusion and Recommendation
In conclusion, it is demonstrable that a comparison of the masculinity scores of the two countries indicates a sharp contrast between the two cultures as demonstrated by Geert Hofstede. While the masculinity score of the United States is high at 62, the masculinity score of Netherlands is significantly low at 14. The comparison shows that, according to Hofstede, the culture of United States is driven by competition, achievement, and success. As such, the Americans’ behaviour in school, work, and play may be more focused on the shared values that individuals should strive to be the best they can be. Therefore, the members of the American society tend to display and talk freely about how successful they are. On the contrary, Netherlands’ low score of 14 indicates that the dominant values in the society, according to Hofstede, are quality of life and caring for others. Therefore, the Netherlands is a feminine society and it places more importance on keeping life/work balance and ensures that all members are included (Marcus & Gould, 2000). In terms of the cultural dimension of masculinity, the fundamental issue lies on what motivates people in life. The motivating factor can either be, wanting to be the best (masculine) or liking what one does (feminine).
In the American society, individuals could be seen as mainly motivated by the desire to become the best. Such an attitude can create a lot of dynamism in the society as people will seek more possibilities of doing things in a better way. Therefore, the cultural dimension of masculinity in such a country influences the goals and values of international education in the IB School. For instance, the masculine culture of US may undermine the values of IB School education such as teamwork, fairness and justice as well as compassion. In Netherlands, things are the exact opposite of what is in the US. The country’s society is characterised by equality, solidarity and quality of life. As such, the more feminine culture fits in better with the values of IB Schools such as teamwork, compassion, fairness and justice as well as resilience.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the IB Schools should ensure that the impact of the cultural dimension of masculinity is considered in the design and implementation of institutional policies. Therefore, appropriate measures should be taken to reduce a potentially negative influence of the cultural dimension of masculinity on the established values. American IB Schools should seek appropriate ways of improving promoting compassion, teamwork as well as fairness and justice among teachers and students.
Suggestions for Future Research
Future research in this field could consider investigating the influence of other cultural dimensions on the goals and values of international education in IB Schools. This particular research focused on a single cultural dimension.
References
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Hallinger, P., Walker, A., & Lee, M. (2010). A study of successful practices in the IB program continuum. Asia Pacific Center for Leadership and Change, Hong Kong Institute of Education .
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INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Part 1: Goals of IB Schools in US and Netherlands
1 a) The cultural dimension of masculinity influences goals of international education in IB Schools in US and Netherlands.
Strongly Agree…… Agree……. Disagree…… Strongly Disagree…….. Neutral………
Explain…………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) How does the cultural dimension of masculinity affect the goals of international education in IB Schools?
Positively……….. Negatively……….. Neutral…………..
Explain your response above………………………………………………………..................
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Part 2: Values of International Education in IB Schools
2 a) The cultural dimension of masculinity influences values of international education in IB Schools
Strongly Agree………. Agree……..Disagree……….Strongly Disagree…… Neutral…………
b) Do the students in your school exhibit the following values of IB Schools? (Tick where appropriate)
Teamwork - Yes……. No……………
Explain……………………………………………………………………………………
Compassion – Yes ……… No …………
Explain………………………………………………………………………………………
Resilience – Yes …… No …….
Explain……………………………………………………………………………………..
Part 3: Teachers of IB Schools
3a) Individuals should care for others in the society.
Agree…………. Disagree………… Don’t Know………….
Why?...................................................................................................................................
b) It is important to ensure that you emerge the best in whatever you do.
Agree…………. Disagree…………. Don’t Know……………….
Why?............................................................................................................................................
