Obesity relates to the excessive or abnormal accumulation of fats which may subsequently impair one’s health. The denotation of obesity and overweight among adults is based on the established cut-off points that are directly related to a person’s body mass index. There is a correlation between BMI and body fat. However, BMI varies significantly with sex and age among children and therefore, when classifying children as either obese or overweight, one needs to compare a child’s BMI to an age-specific and sex-specific reference populace. Adolescents and children amid the eighty-fifth and ninety-fourth BMI percentiles for age are considered overweight; those whose BMI is equal to or greater than the 95th percentile are usually considered obese. Percentiles used to classify children as obese or overweight are usually fixed and based on the data collected amid the year 1963 and 1980 or amid the year 1963 and 1994 for children between the age of two and six years (Wen & Fan, 2013).
BMI is the common screening procedure used to ascertain whether a person is obese or overweight. BMI (Body Mass Index) does not measure one's body fat directly. However, it is utilized as a surrogate measure because of its correlation with the direct body fat measures, especially at high levels of BMI. The imbalance primarily causes obesity amid activity and caloric intake. The increased intake of calories and reduced physical activity are the primary drives of obesity in the society. Other causes of obesity and overweight include genetics, poor food choices, pollution, food addiction, socioeconomic factors, and food advertisements (Sungwoo & Harris, 2015). Obesity is a critical public health predicament in the U.S and is associated with various adverse impacts in childhood and the later stages of life. Some of the health effects of obesity include cardiovascular risk factors, cancer, psychological stress, diabetes, and asthma.
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Scope
Gender and Age Disparities
Amid the year 2015 and 2016, the obesity prevalence amid adults aged between forty years and fifty-nine years was significantly higher than that amid adults aged between 20 and 39 years (42.8 percent and 35.7 percent respectively). Adults aged between sixty years and above had an obesity prevalence of 41.0 percent. The obesity prevalence among youths aged between two and 19 years was 18.5 percent. Adolescents had an obesity prevalence of 20.6 percent, school-aged children had an obesity prevalence of 18.4 percent, and pre-school children’s obesity prevalence was recorded at 13.9 percent (Caspard et al ., 2018). The obesity prevalence of women in the U.S was recorded at 38.0 percent, 54.8 percent, 14.8 percent, and 50.6 percent for non-Hispanic Whites, African-Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanic women respectively. The obesity prevalence of men, on the other hand, was recorded at 10.1 percent, 37.9 percent, 36.9 percent, and 43. Percent of Asian Americans, non-Hispanic Whites, African Americans, and Hispanics respectively.
Race and Ethnic Disparities
Amid the year 2013 and 2015, non-Hispanic Blacks had the highest prevalence of obesity in the U.S (38.1 percent). Hispanics had an obesity prevalence of 31.9 percent. Non-Hispanic Whites, on the other hand, recorded an obesity prevalence of 27.6 percent. Minority groupings recorded a high combined prevalence compared to the non-Hispanic Whites by approximately ten percent. Racial/ethnic disparities amid med were significantly smaller than amid women. During the year 2013 and 2015, obesity prevalence among Asian Americans was significantly lower than that of other ethnic groups (10 percent). Amid the year 2015 and 2016, Asian Americans had an obesity prevalence of 12.7 percent, Hispanics had an obesity prevalence of forty-seven percent, and the non-Hispanic Blacks recorded an obesity prevalence of 46.8 percent. Non-Hispanic Whites recorded an obesity prevalence of 3.9 percent (Ming et al., 2018).
SES Disparities
Less educated individuals in the U.S have a higher obesity prevalence than their counterparts. Amid the year 2015 and 2016, the obesity prevalence of individuals with no high school education, a secondary school degree, a college degree, and a university degree was recorded at 35.5% 32.2%, 31%, and 22.2% respectively (Ming et al., 2018).
Geographical Disparities
All states in the US had more than twenty percent obesity prevalence among adults. Approximately 25 percent of adults in Massachusetts, Hawaii, District of Colombia, and Colorado had obesity. Approximately 30 percent of adults were obese in Guam and twenty-two states. The South recorded the highest obesity prevalence (32.0 percent). The West, Midwest, and Northeast recorded an obesity prevalence of 26.0 percent, 31.4 percent, and 26.9 percent respectively (Caspard, Jabbour, Hammar, & Fenici, 2018).
Health Impacts of Obesity
According to Ming, Fan, Neng, & Wan (2018), some of the co-morbidities associated with obesity and overweight include cancers (pancreatic, breast, kidney, endometrial, prostate, and ovarian cancer), coronary artery disorders, gallbladder disorder, pulmonary embolism, hypertension, congestive heart failure, chronic back pains, and asthma, osteoarthritis, and disability risks. There is also a relationship amid adolescence and childhood obesity and the increased premature mortality and morbidity risk especially cardio-metabolic morbidity. Studies reveal that obesity is a primary health concern which is associated with a decreased life expectancy among young age groups. Obesity is also associated with a considerable health burden and its subsequent health expenditures. The effects of obesity on one’s mental health include anxiety, depression, mood disorders, eating disorders, body dissatisfaction, and negative self-esteem.
Obesity Disparities among the Hispanic Population
The Hispanic populace is among the largest minority cultures in the U.S. According to the 2010 United States census, approximately 50.5 million people self-identified as Hispanic; this comprised of 16.3 percent of the total U.S population. Currently, Hispanic individuals especially adults, have a high age-adjusted obesity prevalence than the Asian Americans and the non-Hispanic Whites. Hispanic individuals are also affected disproportionately by the severe health impacts of obesity such as type 2 diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and hyperlipidemia. Forty-two percent of Hispanic adults are considered obese. Around 22.4 percent of Hispanic children amid the age of 2 and 9 are obese; this is significantly higher than the obesity prevalence among the White children (14.3%). The rate of acute obesity is also high amid the Hispanic children (around 6.6 percent) compared to that amid the White children (3.9 percent) (Caspard et al., 2018). The obesity rates among Hispanic children are also significantly higher with its inception at a tender age of 2 to 5 years old compared to that among the White children (16.7% and 3.5% respectively).
Factors that Contribute to Obesity among the Hispanics in the U.S
Cultural Preference of a Larger Body Size
Cultural expectations of the standard body size differ considerably amid ethnic/racial groupings. In the traditional Hispanic culture, stout bodies are revered as a symbol of wealth and health; this, therefore, leads to the preference for a large and round-shaped body figure. According to a study aimed at assessing the preference of ideal female body shape or figure, Hispanic men preferred women with large body sizes since they believe that overweight women are less arrogant and they possess better communication techniques than other women with normal body sizes. According to the study, elders preferred a large body type since it is perceived as a symbol of good health. Another qualitative study which aimed at exploring the ideal body type among Hispanic females with type 2 diabetes revealed that the Hispanic women preferred a larger body size since they perceived a slim woman as being ugly and masculine (Gartner, Taber, Hirsh, & Robinson, 2016). The Hispanic cultural preferences regarding the perfect body size and weight may affect a person’s perception of weight-related behaviors and body image.
Lack of the Accessibility to Affordable Healthy Foods
Approximately one in four Hispanic households are considered to be food insecure. Approximately twenty-three percent of Hispanic households are living in poverty. Various studies reveal that there is an interrelationship between the low income and the increased obesity risk especially amid children in a household due to the correlation income and the choice of food. The inaccessibility to healthy foods within the Hispanic neighborhood also enhances the increase in obesity rates among this community. The Hispanic populace is also exposed to less nutritious foods; this subsequently enhances the likelihood of obesity prevalence within the community (Gartner et al ., 2016).
Barriers due to Immigration Status, Culture, and Language
Several factors may prevent the Hispanic community from taking part in programs aimed at increasing the access to healthy food choices and lifestyle. Health education programs are usually unavailable in Spanish languages and are usually insensitive to cultural differences. Additionally, numerous health education workers haven’t been trained on how to deal with the Hispanic populace. The access to the relevant programs is often impeded in instances where one’s immigration status is needed as a requirement for various health and nutrition programs (Gartner et al ., 2016). There also exists issues regarding the aspect of stigmatization within the system, and this subsequently makes it hard for the Hispanics to take advantage of the provided benefits.
Physical Activity
Physical activity is crucial to sustaining a healthy energy balance. Various studies reveal that Hispanics usually lack the access to safe sites to be physically active. According to the YRBS research, Hispanic adults and youths were less likely to participate in physical activities compared to the Whites (Sungwoo & Harris, 2015).
Assumptions
Some of the assumptions regarding the prevalence of obesity among the Hispanic population include the notion that the community’s cultural expectations enhance the prevalence of obesity among its population and the assumption that lack of education among the Hispanic population contributes largely to the increased levels of obesity among the community. The traditional Hispanic perception of the ideal body size impacts greatly on the prevalence of obesity within the community. The Hispanic populace perceives stout bodies as a symbol of wealth and health; this, therefore, leads to the preference for a large and round-shaped body figure. The low education levels among the Hispanic community impacts their income rates which subsequently impacts their food choices and their lifestyle (Gartner et al ., 2016).
Community Programs or Policies
CDC supports a variety of obesity prevention approaches in communities within the country. The NCCDPHP coordinates its operations with other CDC departments to enhance the prevention of obesity such as the Division of Heart Disease and Stroke and the Division of Diabetes Translation. Some of the major CDC programs aimed at obesity prevention include the State Public Health Actions to Prevent and Control Diabetes, Heart Disease, Obesity, and Associated Risk Facts and Promote School Health (Ming et al., 2018). The program provides funds to state initiatives to enhance the coordination of prevention and care of these disorders across various community establishments such as health systems, early childhood institutions, schools, and workplaces. REACH (Racial and Ethnic Approaches to Community Health) is a national program aimed at reducing various health disparities (Ming et al ., 2018). The program provides finances to various community establishments, local and state health departments, and universities to initiate culturally appropriate programs such as obesity-prevention strategies.
Advantages and Limitation of the Community Programs
The programs emphasize the aspect of community empowerment as an effective tool in promoting the health of the society. The programs also incorporate social actions and education strategies that subsequently result in the improved use of various health care services, reduction of health disparities, and enhances health literacy. The programs also enhance the understanding of intricate community health issues, foster the establishment of policies and practices relevant to the program’s outcome, and they aid in promoting health and preventing diseases (Gartner et al ., 2016). One major limitation of the programs is that they require actions at all society levels to enhance its effectiveness. The unwillingness of the participation of the public will render the program ineffective.
Proposed Plan to Address the Disparity
Organizations should institute Spanish nutrition education programs to target the Hispanic communities who are not familiar with the English language. The Spanish nutrition education programs may include interactive nutrition sessions and nutrition workshops. Studies reveal that implementing nutrition education programs in the community is effective in promoting healthy eating among members of a particular community (Wen and Fan, 2013). Engaging the Hispanic community in various nutrition programs will foster positive changes in attitude, self-efficacy, and knowledge towards aspects such as healthy eating which will subsequently generate positive implication the dietary behavior of the Hispanic community. Physical education should also be included in the education since it is significant in reducing obesity and in preventing disorders such as type 2 diabetes. The nutrition education program should also incorporate culturally effective intervention strategies aimed at reducing the prevalence of obesity within the Hispanic community.
References
Caspard, H., Jabbour, S., Hammar, N., Fenici, P., Sheehan, J. J., & Kosiborod, M. (2018). Recent trends in the prevalence of type 2 diabetes and the association with abdominal obesity lead to growing health disparities in the USA: An analysis of the NHANES surveys from 1999 to 2014 . Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism , 20(3), 667-671.
Gartner, D. R., Taber, D. R., Hirsch, J. A., & Robinson, W. R. (2016). The spatial distribution of gender differences in obesity prevalence differs from overall obesity prevalence among US adults . Annals of Epidemiology , 26(4), 293-298.
Ming, W., Fan, J. X., Kowaleski-Jones, L., Neng, W., Wen, M., & Wan, N. (2018). Rural-Urban Disparities in Obesity Prevalence among Working-Age Adults in the United States: Exploring the Mechanisms. American Journal of Health Promotion , 32(2), 400-408.
Sungwoo, L., & Harris, T. G. (2015). Neighborhood Contributions to Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Obesity among New York City Adults . American Journal of Public Health , 105(1), 159-165.
Wen, M., Kowaleski-Jones, L., & Fan, J. X. (2013). Ethnic-immigrant Disparities in Total and Abdominal Obesity in the US. American Journal of Health Behavior , 37(6), 807-818.
