Emphysema: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

The answer to question 1 and 3 

Emphysema is a lung state associated with bodily signs which comprise squatness of breathing, the orifice, and fingernails spiraling blue with hard work and abridged intellectual vigilance. With pathophysiological conclusions including the air sacs in the alveoli being smashed as the internal ramparts of the air sacs becoming frail and rupturing easily creating larger air spaces instead of numerous small ones. This results in the reduced surface area of the lungs which also affects the amount of oxygen reaching the bloodstream. The damaged alveoli do not function well because old air is trapped leaving no space for the oxygenated air to enter after exhaling as a result of the collapsed airways. Occasionally a development of bullae amid them lean walls of reduced lung tissue (Cottin et al. 2005) 

The answer to question 2 

Pulmonary function tests are noninvasive analysis usually performed to determine 

whether the lungs are functioning well by assessing the lung quantity, capability, tolls of the surge and air swapping. With this knowledge, the physician can establish and settle on the kind of treatment on various lung disarrays. The quantity of gas taken in and released out in a examination outcome is normally contrasted to the standards from somebody of matching age, stature, gender as well as race. PFT determines: Tidal capacity, minuscule capacity , critical capability, purposeful enduring capability, enduring capacity, entire lung competence, strained critical ability, enforced expiratory volume, Forced expiratory gush, and max out expiratory surge pace . The most important measures include FVC, FEV 1, and FEV 1 /FVC. Enforced crucial capability is the entire capacity of gas a sick individual is capable of breathing out during the entire period of the examination in maximum sweat. Forced expiratory volume1 can be told to be the entire volume of air a sick person is capable of breathing out in the initial price in the maximum exertion of the strained crucial ability and is likely to be low in ailments which block the air pathway example being asthma or emphysema. The FEV1/FVC proportion is usually applied to verify if the prototype is obtrusive if the percentage is 69 and below, restrictive if both the FVC and FEV 1 are below 85%, or normal. This patient has an obstructive disease because of the FEV1/FVC ratio is 69% (Yokohori, Aoshiba and Nagai 2004) . 

The answer to question 4 

In the brain stem, the respiratory center is found bilaterally in the medulla and pons 

with three main centers which take part in respiratory regulation. They include: Dorsal 

respiratory center whose responsibility is an inspiration; Ventral respiratory center accountable for expiration and inspiration and finally Pneumotaxic center which helps in controlling the 

breathing rate and pattern. 

The answer to question 5 

The oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve graphically signifies the affinity involving oxygen and hemoglobin. The curve is S-shaped with the leveled higher segment being further flat represents O2 binding to hemoglobin in the lungs. The sharp lower area of the curvature where PaO2 gauges between 40 and 60 mm Hg, shows O2 being let loose from hemoglobin into the capillaries at the tissue point because of amplified O2 command. On the fairly flat division of the curvature, PaO2 fluctuations occur generating a significant change in SaO2. A SaO2 rate of 90% links to a PaO2 intensity of 60 mm Hg ( Demedts, Demoor, Bracke, Joos and Brusselle 

2006) . 

The answer to question 6 

Bronchitis is self-limited inflammation of the large airways of the lung that is characterized by an acute inflammation of the bronchial wall leading to epithelial injury causing hyperresponsiveness and elevated mucus production. With the spread of infection, a productive cough results from infection of the lower respiratory tract without pneumonia. Microscopic examination has revealed thickening of the bronchial and tracheal mucosa parallel to the  inflamed parts (Treanor and Hayden 2000). 

References 

Cottin, V., Nunes, H., Brillet, P. Y., Delaval, P., Devouassoux, G., Tillie-Leblond, I., ... & Cordier, J. F. (2005). Combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema: a distinct underrecognised entity.  European Respiratory Journal ,  26 (4), 586-593. 

Demedts, I. K., Demoor, T., Bracke, K. R., Joos, G. F., & Brusselle, G. G. (2006). Role of apoptosis in the pathogenesis of COPD and pulmonary emphysema.  Respiratory research ,  7 (1), 53. 

Treanor, J. J., Hayden, F. G. Viral infections. In: Murray JF, ed. Textbook of respiratory medicine. 3rd ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2000, 929-984. 

Yokohori, N., Aoshiba, K., & Nagai, A. (2004). Increased levels of cell death and proliferation in alveolar wall cells in patients with pulmonary emphysema.  Chest ,  125 (2), 626-632.