It is undeniable that children are bound to exhibit vital differences from each other particularly in terms of physical attributes and learning abilities. Regarding the former, some children may be stronger while others may be shorter. Likewise, with regard to learning abilities, some are capable of learning quickly, remembering and making use of what they have learned in various situations. However, others may require repeated practice and may experience difficulties in generalizing and maintaining new skills and knowledge. In most children, the differences are fairly small. As a result, these children are able to benefit from a general education program. However, in others, the learning and/or physical ability differ from the norm to the extent that they may need a personal program of special education as well as other related services so as to ensure that they benefit from education fully ( Hutchinson, 2013; Lupart, 2000 ). It is this group that is referred to as exceptional learners.
The term exceptional children comprise of children who are likely to experience challenges in learning. It also incorporates those whose performance is so superior to the extent that changes in instruction and curriculum are vital in a bid to help them maximize their potential. Therefore, the term exceptional learners is inclusive and makes reference to children with behavioral and/or learning challenges; those with sensor impairments or physical disabilities; and those with special talents or the intellectually gifted ( Hutchinson, 2013 ). Thus, the use of the term ‘students with disabilities' is restrictive compared to ‘exceptional children.' This is particularly because the term fails to incorporate the talented and gifted children. In order to understand the exceptionality concept better, therefore, it is crucial for one to get acquainted with the related definitions.
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The terms disability, handicap, and impairment are often used interchangeably. However, these terms are not synonymous ( Hutchinson, 2013 ). For instance, impairment entails the loss or reduced function of a given organ or body part such as a limb. However, a disability can be said to be present if the impairment limits an individual’s ability to undertaken such tasks as walking just like most people do. Similarly, when an individual has a disability, it does not mean that he or she is handicapped unless the particular disability results in social, educational, personal or vocational problems amongst others. For instance, when a child loses his or her leg but learns how to use a prosthetic limb, the said child cannot be considered handicapped. This is because he or she can function fully, at least in the physical environment, both in school and at home. Exceptional children may share various physical characteristics as well as patterns of behavior and learning ( Hutchinson, 2013 ). These attributes fall into various categories of exceptionality and include learning disabilities; Autism; mental retardation; behavioral and emotional disorders communication disorders; visual impairments; hearing impairments; and health and physical impairments. Others include multiple disabilities, traumatic brain injury and special talents and gift.
Exceptional Learners in the United States (U.S)
In the U.S, more than five million children are currently enrolled in special education programs. This underscores the nation’s extent of exceptional learners. Likewise, laws have been put in place to cater to the needs of this group of learners. For instance, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1975 requires that disabled persons aged between three and twenty-one years are entitled to appropriate and free public school education. Likewise, it requires the school environment is both supportive and open to ensure that the learners achieve academically. Despite the legal backing, it is generally expected that preparing and teaching exceptional learners is the role of the entire populace. However, more importantly, the school leaders are expected to familiarize themselves with the factors necessary for ensuring the academic success of exceptional learners. A notable approach in this regard is inclusion.
The adoption of an inclusion model in numerous schools in the U.S is aimed at allowing exceptional learners to participate actively in regular education classrooms ( Hutchinson, 2013; Lupart, 2000 ). Different inclusion classroom settings are adopted in this regard. For instance, a number of teachers may be assigned to a classroom while the students may be placed in groups based on the academic abilities and needs of the individual students. In the ideal situation, the students are unaware of the learners that are receiving special education services in the same classroom. Other students may be under an Individualized Education Plan (IEP) in which case they are offered modifications, accommodations as well as support so as to meet their academic goals but within a similar classroom setting as the regular learners. This fosters inclusivity to the exceptional learners while ensuring their academic development and growth ( Hutchinson, 2013 ). Likewise, the learning environment should be structured in a manner that caters to different abilities, interests and learning styles. While in the inclusive setting, exceptional learners, as well as academically struggling regular learners, should be exposed to opportunities that allow them to receive extra support. Moreover, the special education and regular education teachers have to work as a team, fostering collaboration and cooperation.
Given the increasing number of exceptional learners in the U.S, special education is not only growing, but also, the need for schools to implement individualized support effectively cannot be overstated ( Hutchinson, 2013 ). Subsequently, a considerable amount of time is spent on creating the right foundations for exceptional learners. Some important strategies include co-taught classes, training of co-teaching partners, the creation of balanced classroom rosters, provision of the most appropriate supports and development of collaborative relationships. An inclusive class allows the learners to value and accept their differences. It has been established that placing exceptional learners in general classroom settings enhances learning and results in multiple benefits. For the success of the inclusive model, administrative support is requisite. In this regard, effective educational leadership is a vital ingredient in the improvement of educational outcome for exceptional learners.
Inclusive Learning
Conventional education systems were characterized by the inclusion of some learners and exclusion of others. This phenomenon suggested that some learners were incapable of coping with the education system owing to their deficits ( Hutchinson, 2013 ). The separation of ordinary schools and special schools promoted a medical and traditional view of special needs in which emphasis was given to the particular learners' shortcomings. This view has influenced not only the teacher beliefs and training but also the educational practices and attitudes. The advent of inclusive education in recent years has sought to address the challenges inherent in this view of education. The role of teachers in the success of this pursuit cannot be overstated given that the regular classroom is the primary setting within which inclusive learning is implemented ( Lupart, 2000 ). Thus, is the duty of all teachers to seek ways of instructing all learners in the classrooms irrespective of their differences in physical attributes and learning abilities. Special attention should be given to the physical environment, classroom management techniques, instructional strategies and educational collaboration. Ultimately, inclusive learning should foster changes in the teachers' perception of knowledge, learning, and teaching as well as their role in advancing inclusive learning. Likewise, the teachers’ attitudes and beliefs are important ( Idrees & Ilyas, 2012; Kozleski et al., 2000 ).
Numerous factors have to be considered when mainstreaming inclusive learning. These include teaching materials and resources and school facilities among others. A school that is fully equipped with basic learning and teaching resources make it easy for the teachers to execute their duties and consequently improve the children’s learning outcomes. For instance, increased access by all learners to books of different learning levels ensures that the children with reading difficulties are able to obtain reading competencies that are expected at their level. Such a simple strategy as displaying the letters of the alphabet in pictorial and concrete forms helps the children with writing and learning challenges to practice and improve their spelling. Thus, in some instances, sophisticated materials are unnecessary. Also, creativity amongst the teachers is crucial.
The learning of children with students with special needs can be enhanced by the use of such assistive technologies as computers ( Kozleski et al., 2000 ). While some of these technologies are expensive and sophisticated, others are simple and easy to use. Key among the latter includes tape recorders, pictorial chart, videotapes, tape recorders, hearing aids, communication boards and musical instruments. Teachers ought to modify their classrooms so as to accommodate all the learners. The learning environment should also enable all the learners, especially those with special needs to fully participate in the learning exercise. For example, it is important to ensure that there is a maintenance of proper seating, positioning as well as seating opportunities so as to ensure that there is regular movement. Further, schools are expected to ensure that there is ease of access so that irrespective of their abilities, all students can move around the school environment independently and with minimal obstructions. Those with special needs should be provided with barrier-free access to various facilities such as toilets, classrooms, offices, library, pathways, playing fields as well as other facilities. This is because barrier-free facilities ensure that the learners with special needs can comprehensively interact with their colleagues both socially and academically. For instance, a barrier-free pathway to the playing field enables a child on a wheelchair to access the field and therefore play with his or her classmates.
Factors Affecting Learning and Literacy among Students with Exceptional Learning Needs
Family Background
The socioeconomic status of an exceptional learner’s parents plays a vital role in his or her learning and literacy development. This entails the parents’ occupational affiliation and revenue, professional and academic qualification (Ali et al., 2013). Living with a child with special needs has profound impacts on a family. For example, the financial costs, logistical complexities, time, as well as emotional and physical demands have far-reaching impacts on the concerned family. The shared experience of taking care of the child affects all areas of the family’s functioning. Notably, the family is significantly strained. Parents are vital in the provision of education to exceptional learners. This is because they are responsible for offering support, the necessary life experiences as well as stimulation that are necessary for the learners' holistic development. Likewise, the parents provide nurturing environments and safe homes for the children, preparing them for school and thus supporting learning. The parents’ level of education is closely associated with their involvement in the education of their children. This is because the amount of the parents’ schooling directly impacts how they ultimately structure the home environment as well as their interactions with the children in a bid to enhance their academic achievement. For example, the parents who believe that they are capable of making a difference likely to not only plan activities but also take part in events that necessitate their active participation. This is because of the involvement of parents in their children's educational process is informed by their thoughts and beliefs about themselves as parents as well as their beliefs about their children's learning.
The learners who are adequately guided by their parents are more likely to perform better in their exams. This is particularly when coupled with the teachers’ guidance (Ch, 2006). There is a consensus amongst scholars that parental interest in their child’s education is the most important indicator of achievement. Flouri & Buchanan (2004) reckon that the involvement of parents in their children's learning and literacy practices is more powerful compared to other family-related variables such as family size, social class, and the parents' education levels. Parental involvement not only affects academic performance resulting in higher academic achievement but also results in enhanced cognitive competence, school attendance, and problem-solving skills. It also results in reduced behavioral problems. Likewise, parental involvement results in benefits that go beyond educational and literacy achievement. It leads to greater emotional and social development, increased resilience to stress, enhanced life satisfaction, self-control, and self-direction. Moreover, the children are more likely to show greater mental health, social adjustment, and social competence. They are also likely to exhibit more tolerance and positive peer relations (Desforges & Abouchaar, 2003).
Societal Attitudes
One of the most negative and potent stressors for children with special needs are societal attitudes. Thus, with negative attitudes, acceptance of such individuals in the society is unlikely. These attitudes are likely to hinder their full participation. These attitudes are expressed in the form of fear, awkwardness, and pity. It is also expressed in the form of low expectations about the likely contributions of the children with special needs. The negative and stereotypical attitudes are responsible for holding back this group by impeding their participation in educational, social and vocational contexts. Further, these attitudes result in social rejection and the maintenance of increased social distance towards the group. For instance, across all cultures, social rejection and negative attitude towards children with special needs has prevailed historically ( Idrees & Ilyas, 2012). For individuals with special needs, the existence of negative social attitudes leads to development, reinforcement, and solidification of socioeconomic barriers to mainstream activities. Negative attitudes also reduce the learners’ self-esteem which has a detrimental impact on learning. For instance, efficacy and self-belief are vital in the development of a can-do attitude which drives such personal achievements as excelling in school.
Physical Facilities
Exceptional learners are more likely to express concerns various barriers, physical or otherwise, in a school environment. For instance, provision of an accessible environment in schools may be restricted by budgetary and architectural constraints. Often, most schools do not put into consideration the needs of learners with special needs. This is addressed by the Persons with Disability Act of 2003 which requires institutions to grant those with special needs access to all facilities. This necessitates all newly constructed facilities to be made accessible and alterations done on existing facilities ( Lupart, 2000) . The learning areas, for instance, should be scrutinized so that they are not only accessible but also safe. Issues that should be addressed include too narrow doors, impassable pathways, toilets and showers that lack grab bars or switches that are either too low or too high. Such barriers frustrate the learners with special needs because they are forced to be dependent on their peers.
Instructional Strategies
For learners with special needs, the key to academic success is dependent on the most appropriate accommodations, modifications, and adaptations being made on the instruction as well as other classroom activities. An exceptional learner studying in regular classrooms without any of these modifications is likely to face numerous challenges. For instance, lack of accessible study materials, lack of trained and sensitive staff as well as lack of awareness of enabling technologies are bound to affect exceptional learners. Thus, to attain functional levels of the inclusion of exceptional students in conventional classrooms, there is a need for adaptations and modifications to be made on both the learning environment as well as educational materials ( Kozleski et al., 2000; Lupart, 2000).
References
Ali, S., Haider, Z., Munir, F., Khan, H., & Ahmed, A. (2013). Factors contributing to the students academic performance: A case study of Islamia University Sub-Campus. American journal of educational research , 1 (8), 283-289.
Ch, A. H. (2006). Effect of guidance services on study attitudes, study habits and academic achievement of secondary school students. Bulletin of Education & Research , 28 (1), 35-45.
Desforges, C., & Abouchaar, A. (2003). The impact of parental involvement, parental support and family education on pupil achievement and adjustment: A literature review (Vol. 433). Nottingham: DfES publications.
Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2004). Early father's and mother's involvement and child's later educational outcomes. British Journal of Educational Psychology , 74 (2), 141-153.
Hutchinson, N. L. (2013). Inclusion of exceptional learners in Canadian schools: A practical handbook for teachers . Pearson Education Canada.
Idrees, B., & Ilyas, R. (2012). Discrimination and stigmatization of physically disabled student in a general educational environment in Pakistan: A case study. Academic Research International , 2 (2), 622.
Kozleski, E., Mainzer, R., & Deshler, D. (2000). Bright Futures for Exceptional Learners: An Agenda To Achieve Quality Conditions for Teaching & Learning.
Lupart, J. (2000, April). Students with exceptional learning needs: At-risk, utmost. In Pan-Canadian Education Research Agenda Symposium: Children and youth at risk, Ottowa .
