One of the most important factors in becoming a psychologist is a need for a thorough understanding and ability to apply APA Ethical Principles and Code of Conduct. This document provides ethical framework so that professionals can understand and evaluate situations to avoid unethical treatment of people. Various fields, such as medicine for example, established their codes of ethics to provide their practitioners status of being a professional and hold them accountable in case of an incident. Psychology, being a relatively new science, needed its code of ethics because psychologists and psychiatrists were struggling while trying to investigate ethical complains. There were no defined set of principles to relate these complaints to, so APA members had to improvise every time they had to investigate an incident. Unfortunately, many complaints were issued stating that their method was being unjust and tentative. As the demand for treatments of psychological issues on the battlefield during World War II and then back home increased, APA committee created and enacted a first code of conduct in 1953.
There are many benefits that APA Ethics Code provides; specifically, it ensures the well-being of people against harmful decisions that psychologists can make. Psychologists have to adhere to the standards provided in the code, and failure to do so may result in the loss of their license. As scientists, psychologists have to contribute to the scientific and professional knowledge base of psychology. However, sometimes the desire to gain knowledge trumps the needs of humans participating in the investigations. For example, a while before the ethical standards were implemented, there was a longitudinal study of natural progression of syphilis – Tuskegee syphilis experiment. Participants were told that they were getting free healthcare; however, none of them were notified that they had the decease. The study began in 1932 when no treatment was yet available. In 1947 penicillin became a standard method of treatment, but the researchers in the study decided to withhold the medicine and continued their research. More than 600 people died because the researchers were more interested in the progression of the decease instead of helping people (Jecker, 2000). Scientific experiments and research are used to reach generalizable conclusions to benefit society. In the case of Tuskegee syphilis experiment, researchers’ interests clouded their judgments and prevented them from helping people. As Flanagan, Miller, and Jacob (2005, p. 433) state, “A psychologist with a broad knowledge base of ethical principles and standards is likely to anticipate and prevent ethical problems from arising, and make sound choices when ethically challenging situations arise.” Therefore, APA Ethics Code ensures that incidents like Tuskegee study no longer occur, and that psychologists are obligated to promote human welfare by respecting and protecting people’s rights.
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Ethical Issues in Special Settings
Ethical issues may arise in various settings; therefore, professionals have to adhere to the ethical principles in order to protect people’s rights ( Nagy, 2011) . For example, ethics are extremely important in business. Customers would never deal with a business company that is known for treating people unfairly. For example, imagine a situation where a customer comes to a car dealership wanting to purchase a car within a certain payment range because he does not want to pay more than a certain amount a month and would rather pay less money. A salesperson presents a car that this customer wants, and it is cheaper than that customer expected. However, instead of letting the customer know that the payment should be less, the salesperson adds features to the car without notifying the customer so that it brings up the value up to the payment range the customer expected, even though the customer stated that he wants to pay as little as possible. After signing the contract, the customer then realizes that he got ripped off, but can’t do anything now that he signed the papers. By selling a more expensive car that salesperson lost a potential future customer. The issue in the above situation was whether or not to say to the customer the actual monthly payment without adding any features. The salesperson decided to treat the customer unethically, therefore, to ignore ethical principles. Thereupon, honesty is a key to a successful company.
Additionally, decision-making process when business issues arise should focus on protecting employees’ and customers’ rights ( Nagy, 2011) . It is possible that this salesperson was forced by his manager to make more sales a month, so in order to keep his job he decided that it was fine to manipulate the situation for his advantage. Professionals should maintain respectful workplace environment, and employees should not be forced to go to unmeasurable lengths to keep their jobs. Every business should protect individual values and rights. For example, again mentioning the above situation, the salesperson could have encouraged customer into buying a car with more options by giving a small discount. That way he would have made a better sale, pleased the customer, and kept that customer’s business in the future. Additionally, this customer might have encouraged his friends to come to that dealership because he got a good deal. Ethics are not only a requirement in conducting business, but also an important component of making it successful.
Psychologists often face similar situations in a way that they are required to make decisions that might unfavorably affect people ( Nagy, 2011) . Organizational psychologists’ job, for example, is to find a way to make organizations and workers more effective while keeping ethics in mind. If the above mentioned dealership would have had an organizational psychologist, they would make better decisions regarding their employees and customers, since psychologists are aware of the ethical principles and required to adhere to them.
Another setting that requires understanding and adherence of the ethical principles is a school. Nowadays many school psychologists are required to evaluate students to find out whether they have any learning or behavior issues. Such an evaluation comes with strings attached. Educational practitioners, particularly school psychologists, may face an ethical dilemma in situations in which they receive a subpoena to produce a student’s education records without parent’s consent ( Kratochwill & Shapiro, 2000) . In order circumstances, school psychologist may be asked to provide raw psychological data including test responses, test scores, test protocols or test manuals to non-expert. In such a cases, a direct conflict between law and ethics will arise. This is because the law says one thing “Provide the data” and the ethics code says the other thing “Do not provide the data” ( Kratochwill & Shapiro, 2000) .
As per the APA’s standards, section 2.02(b) states, “Psychologists refrain from misuse of assessment techniques, intervention results and interpretations and take reasonable steps to prevent others from misusing the information these techniques provide ( Kratochwill & Shapiro, 2000) . The section expects school or educational psychologists to refrain from releasing raw test results or raw data to persons, other than to clients as appropriate, who are not qualified to use such information. This is because it is believed that releasing data to nonexperts could lead to misuse of information. It could also violate copyright laws and test security.
APA’s Ethical Standards 2.10 expects educational psychologists and any other psychologists to uphold copyrights laws and test security and to protect the data for the client from getting misused.
When a parent signs consent to evaluate his child, he have to understand that there is a possibility that the child might be switched to a special education class. Psychologist’s role in this case is to explain the parent any possible scenario of what can happen in the future and what school is obligated to do after they receive the results of the evaluation. Additionally, there is a higher need for confidentiality given the group setting.
Part 3: Ethical Dilemma
Sometimes psychologists confront a situation in which an action that meets the goals of one moral principle appears to conflict with the goals of another principle. This seeming conflict among principles is called an ethical dilemma. In such situation, professionals must depend upon the Ethical Code for guidance and weigh the principles to determine which decision is the morally and ethically correct response. One of the most challenging ethical dilemmas faced by psychologists is addressing the issue of confidentiality especially when a child or youth is involved in the dilemma. Using Keith-Spiegel & Koocher, (1985) eight-step model and appropriate models of ethical reasoning, the paper will propose one of the ethical dilemmas in the field of psychology and then identify the solution to the ethical dilemma.
Identify the ethical dilemma that may arise
The ethical dilemma to be addressed is whether psychologist should reveal confidential information to a third party
Describe the parameters of the situation (including data from the involved parties, colleagues, and the relevant psychological literature as well).
A psychologist is offering therapy for a 14-year-old girl who is in a diverged relationship with her father. Her mother died and hence the girl is under the care of her father. During the session, the psychologist discussed the limits of confidentiality ahead of time with the girl and her father, and the father has agreed that in the best interest of clinical rapport, he will not ask for intimate details of her therapy sessions. Consequently, the girl was free and she disclosed that she has used narcotics on occasion and that she has been to party where Ecstacy is available, although she has never tried it. It happened that the father found what he believes to be marijuana paraphernalia in his daughter’s bedroom under her bed. He now has a change of heart. In the subsequent session, he confronts psychologist demanding to know if his daughter had disclosed that she uses narcotics. The therapist is caught trying to balance a client’s rights to Autonomy or self-direction and Fidelity (maintain relationships of trust) with principle of Beneficience (benefit) and Nonmalficence (do no harm). The big challenge is: Should he reveal the fact that the girl uses drugs?
Define the potential issues involved.
As presented in the case, the psychologist finds it difficult on whether to report the information he got from his client or not. The case is complicated by the fact that the client is under 18 years. In the vast majority of cases, parents of children under 18 years are responsible for signing releases of information and/or obtaining or releasing reports pertaining to child’s medical or educational record. This means that the father of the client needs to get all important details regarding his child. According to the case, psychologist had discussed the limit of confidentiality and the father had indicated that he will not ask for intimate details of her therapy sessions. However, it turns out that the same father needs the information regarding the use of marijuana. He changed his mind. It is his rights to know because he is the father of the client. It is also the right of psychologist to act with professionalism and maintain confidentiality. The best way of approaching the ethical dilemma is by determining the client. If it is established that the girl is able to make decision independently, then the psychologist will make the revelation confidential and can even prevent the father from knowing it.
Review the ethical guidelines that might apply to each issue (such as APA Standards).
The APA ethical principles and enforceable standards provide guidance for psychologists as they navigate through an ethical dilemma. Such a situation requires, among other things, the ability to view a dilemma from multiple vantage points without allowing personal bias to interfere with judgment. The APA standards can help us in determining whether the girl should be treated as an independent client or whether the father should act as a representative of the client.
An independent client is one who can assume adult legal status and is capable of giving informed consent. According to the APA Ethics Code and Standards (2002), it is indicated that although a legal guardian may provide consent for the assessment and treatment participation for his or her child, the child must also provide assent in order for the assessment to be completed. Assent is described as voluntary willingness to participate. The Ethical Code (APA, 2002) (Section 3: 10 a) addresses the role of informed consent for adults, guardians and those with adult legal status.
This section states that although assent is reserved for those children and youth who are under the age of majority, there are specific conditions where minors can have adult legal status. For example, emancipated minors can assume adult legal status. These are youths who have not achieve the age of majority of the state, 18 years, but have achieved adult status by assuming adult responsibilities. For example, those who have participated in marriage, or have been in the armed services or are financially self-supportive can be given adult legal status. It should be noted that State laws differ in their ages for granting emancipated minor status. California, for example, can grant a 14 year old adolescent a status of emancipated minor. New Mexico, on the other hand, can grant a 16 year old adolescent a status of an emancipated minor. New York make decision case by case.
Under Section 3.10 a, mature minor can also assume adult legal status. Mature minor is defined as youth who have not achieved state age requirements for adulthood but who, according to the law, may get certain adult treatment privileges. For example, he is considered appropriate to provide consent for their own treatment for drug abuse or sexually transmitted diseases. The challenge is whether the girl should be treated as an emancipated minor or mature minor. A closer look at the situation reveals that the girl is not in good relationship with her father. This means that the girl can be granted status of a mature minor.
Another ethical standard worth noting is about the informed consent and passive permission for participation. According to Standard 3.10b of APA codes, the psychologist is expected to obtain “active permission” from the guardian. However, in most cases, attempts to obtain passive permission often serve to alienate parents and older students who feel that they have been duped.
According to Standard 4 of Ethical principles, psychologists have a “primary obligation to take reasonable precautions to protect confidentiality information obtained through or stored in any medium. They also have obligation to discuss the limits of confidentiality with clients. They are also expected to report only that information that is directly relevant to the purpose of the report.
Evaluate the rights, responsibilities, and welfare of parties affected by the issues.
One of the parties affected by the issue is the psychologist. Psychologist is expected to display high level of competence. Standards 2.01 and 2.03 states that psychologists offers services with populations and in areas only within the boundaries of their competence, based on education, training, experience, consultation, or study (Nagy, 2011). Standards 9.02 also expects psychologist to obtain client’s informed consent for assessment. Concerning the release of test data, Standard 9.04 states that psychologist should provide test data to clients or others as specified in a client release document ( Altmaier & Hansen, 2012) . In addition, psychologist may choose not to release test data to protect clients or others from harm of misuse of data. In absence of client release, psychologist is expected to release test data only as required by law or court order. Concerning interpretation of results, psychologist is expected to take into consideration the purpose of the assessment, as well as contextual factors related to the test, that might influence the accuracy or direction of the interpretation ( Altmaier & Hansen, 2012) . Psychologist should indicate any limitation, if it exist.
The girl is another party directly affected by the issue. The girl should be treated as client. Her needs should be addressed in an ethical manner. Her autonomy should be respected. Although the girl happens to be under 18 years, the context reveals that she can assume the mature minor status. This is because she is not close to her father. She tend to make decision by her own. That is why she opens up and reveals that she has been using drugs and has been participating in Ecstasy. The girl should be granted adult legal status and hence her information should be treated as that of an adult. The girl is expected to cooperate in the session and give relevant information. She should be treated as an independent client. An independent client is one who can assume adult legal status and is capable of giving informed consent. According to the APA Ethics Code and Standards (2002), it is indicated that although a legal guardian may provide consent for the assessment and treatment participation for his or her child, the child must also provide assent in order for the assessment to be completed ( Knapp & VandeCreek, 2003) . It is also the rights of the girl to be served in the best way possible without any form of bias, coercion or intimidation.
The father is another party affected by the issue. As indicated, the father is the provider of the girl and takes care of her. However, their relationship is soar. The father assumes the adult legal status and is expected to take care of the girl. The father is also expected to respect the girl. He should not intimidate or threaten her.
Generate alternative decisions for each issue.
Presented with such situation, psychologist can adopt a number of decision. The first decision is to reveal to the father what the girl told him. This means that psychologist can inform the father that the girl occasionally uses marijuana. The alternative decision is to avoid revealing the fact that the girl uses marijuana.
Identify the consequences of making each decision.
Consequences of revealing the girls behavior to the father
Revealing the girls behavior to the father will not only violate the confidentiality and autonomy of the girl but also places her in a difficult position. Her relationship with the father may become worse. In addition, the trust between the girl and the psychologist will diminish. This means that the therapy session may be affected negatively. In such a case, it will be difficult to come up sound solution to the problem.
Consequences of withholding the confidential information
Withholding the information about the girl’s behavior will help the psychologist build and establish trust with the girl. However, the father, who assumes the adult legal status and is expected to take care of the girl, may not get the much needed information. The law expects the adult taking care of the minor to access as much information as possible. Nevertheless, given the fact that the father and the daughter are in conflicted relationship, it means that even if the father gets the information about her daughter’s behavior, he will not help much in solving her problem. In fact the father may use such information to justify his mistreatments. Withholding information means that the girl and the psychologist will cooperate into making sound decision.
Make decision
Based on the consequences and benefits of each decision, it is apparent that the best action is to withhold the confidential information and prevent the father from knowing it. This decision is backed up by theories such as utilitarian theory. Utilitarian theory believes that the best action is that which is associated with many benefits (Knapp, 1999).
References
Altmaier, E. M., & Hansen, J.-I. C. (2012). The Oxford handbook of counseling psychology . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Knapp, S. (1999). Utilitarianism and the ethics of professional psychologists. Ethics & Behavior , 9(4), 383.
Knapp, S., & VandeCreek, L. (2003). An overview of the major changes in the 2002 APA Ethics Code. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice , 34(3), 301–308.
Kratochwill, T. R., & Shapiro, E. S. (2000). Behavioral assessment in schools: Theory, research, and clinical foundations . New York [u.a.: Guilford Press.
Nagy, T. F. (2011). Approaches to ethical decision making. In Essential ethics for psychologists: A primer for understanding and mastering core issues (pp. 147–170). American Psychological Association.
Nagy, T. F. (2011). The general ethical principles of psychologists. In Essential ethics for psychologists: A primer for understanding and mastering core issues (pp. 49–63). American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/12345-003.
