Research on animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) has its roots in the United States (U.S). This move followed the establishment of the Delta Foundation in 1977 ( Couling, 2017 ) . The foundation was anchored on three critical aspects of AAI which included the animal, its handler, and the healthcare provider. Delta Foundation is also credited for developing the first AAI manual whose aim was to assist practitioners to enrich their practice by incorporating therapy animals. Over time, there was an increased influx of scholars who were interested in the newly emerging field of AAI. Subsequently, the foundation changed its name to Delta Society in 1982 ( Couling, 2017 ) . In the 1980s, the society focused its research efforts on the human-animal bond. These efforts were informed by initial findings that animals had the power to reduce such challenges as stress and high blood pressure. Animals were also associated with increased release of endorphins ( Cherniac k & Cherniack , 2015 ). To accurately express the nature of its services, Delta Society changed its name to Pet Partners in 2012.
Based on Pet Partners’ foundational research, numerous studies currently corroborate the therapeutic benefits of AAI for various types of individuals ( Goddard & Gilmer , 2015; Jenkins, 2014 ; Mills & Hall, 2014 ). Consequently, there is a consensus amongst different scholars that the different forms of AAI offer physical and mental health benefits to such populations as seniors, children, people with mental illnesses and physical disabilities as well as those in prison ( Goddard & Gilmer , 2015; Mills & Hall, 2014 ). In general, the existing research suggests that AAI is comprised of five key benefits whose contribution to human well-being and health cannot be overstated. The five include improvement of social interaction, motivation, and attendance, as well as a reduction in depression and anxiety ( Hosey , Jaskulski, Wegener, Chlan & Needham 2018 ). Different hypotheses have been formulated with the aim of explaining the underlying mechanisms that are responsible for promoting various therapeutic effects. Nevertheless, a unified theoretical framework does not exist. According to some scholars, the animals’ innate attributes are responsible for AAI’s effectiveness ( Goddard & Gilmer , 2015 ). Based on this theoretical perspective, scholars explore the impacts that an animal's behavior, presence, and interaction with people have in AAI. This narrative cannot be ignored since one commonly quoted benefit of using therapy animals as cited in research is that the animals facilitate bonding and creation of rapport ( Couling, 2017 ) . For example, therapy dogs often greet individuals with unconditional positivity and enthusiasm. This attribute helps the individuals in question to relax and feel comfortable ( Jenkins , Laux, Ritchie & Tucker-Gail, 2014; Jenkins, 2014 ).
Delegate your assignment to our experts and they will do the rest.
Therapy animals are also associated with helping people to learn about their behavior and psychological functioning. For the two to be achieved, modeling coupled with environmental feedback related to the cause and effect of such interactions are requisite ( Couling, 2017 ) . For instance, in education, a child who has difficulties paying attention and focusing may be encouraged to work and strengthen his or her ability to relax. In this case, a therapy animal could be used to demonstrate this due to its ability to get highly aroused during play followed by self-soothing in a bid to return to a lower state of arousal. During the process, the child witnesses the animal as it engages in high-energy behaviors followed by behaviors that help it to relax. This way, therapy animals are useful in helping individuals to understand as well as express their emotions ( Cherniac k & Cherniack , 2015 ). During counseling, when a person working with a therapy dog portrays an emotion like sadness, the dog is likely to orient towards the individual and respond by showing affection to the person’s emotion display. This is vital in helping the client to understand that those around him or her will also do the same and offer help once he or she expresses similar emotions. Research efforts have also cited that human-animal interactions during AAIs are likely to result in psychological changes in the persons involved. In this case, therapy animal interactions result in reduced pain owing to a decrease and increase in stress hormones and endorphins respectively (Harper et al., 2015; Fine & Beck , 2015 ; Melson & Fine, 2015). Other changes include improved behavior and social attention, mood, blood pressure, interpersonal interactions, heart rate, cortisol levels, and fear and anxiety. These changes have been associated with the release of oxytocin.
Expounding on the Theoretical Foundations of AAI
Animals’ Intrinsic Attributes and Their Contribution to Therapy
One of the fundamental principles behind AAI is that animals boast particular inherent qualities whose contribution is vital to successful therapy. In this regard, the presence of an animal, its interaction with the individual in question, and impulsive behavior offer opportunities and benefits that would be difficult to have in therapy if the animal was absent ( Fine, 2015 ).
Reduction of Arousal and Anxiety
Interactions with or the presence of animals is associated with the production of calming effects in human beings. This phenomenon is commonly anchored on the biophilia hypothesis. According to the biophilia hypothesis, humans have a genetically-based tendency to attend to or be attracted by other living organisms ( Valiyamattam & Devi, 2016 ; Fine, 2015 ). This tendency is innate and is associated with human beings’ increased focus on lifelike or life processes. Biophilia is founded on the fact that humans, from an evolutionary standpoint, have always sought to increase their likelihood of survival by paying attention to, and increasing knowledge of their environment ( Couling, 2017 ; Valiyamattam & Devi, 2016 ) . It is due to this reason that animals play a vital role in engaging and relaxing patients. While the presence of animals has been associated with a calming effect on individuals, the argument that these effects are as a result of innate gravitation towards animals is contestable. A key reason in this regard is the fact that any stimulus that is attractive or successful in concentrating attention is bound to have a calming effect on the human body ( Fine, 2015 ). When viewed in this light, the presence of an animal acts as just one means to the achievement of a calming effect. Likewise, there is an acknowledgment that individual culture and experience play crucial roles in defining a person’s response to animals ( Valiyamattam , Yamamoto, Fanucchi & Wang, 2018; Fujimura & Nommensen , 2017 ; Sheade & Chandler, 2014).
Learning theory is the other notable theoretical framework that has been used to explain the anti-anxiolytic importance of animals in therapy. The learning theory postulates that any pleasurable activity is likely to be self-reinforcing, and the same activity is deemed likely to take place again in the future ( Fine, 2015 ). On the other hand, anxiety-provoking or non-enjoyable activities such as embarrassing or painful visits to the doctor are likely to result in withdrawal or avoidance behavior. Enjoyable activities are likely to be self-reinforcing. However, discomfort or avoidance of pain is bound to offer a negative reinforcement through ensuring that there is minimal exposure to any painful stimulus. When used in therapy, animals act as a buffer by diverting attention from any undesirable stimulus that a patient may be facing ( Cherniac k & Cherniack , 2015; Fine, 2015 ). This diversion allows the patient to exercise self-monitored control over his or her exposure to the particular stimulus as opposed to avoiding and withdrawing. For example, the patient may reveal a painful or hurtful ordeal to the animal as opposed to revealing the ordeal to the therapist directly. According to the learning theory, any repeated exposure to the diverting properties of an animal coupled with the resultant non-aversive consequences is bound to lead to a reduction or complete elimination of anxiety ( Couling, 2017 ).
In a bid to understand the calming effect of animals on humans, scholars have sought to measure and examine the numerous physiologic responses that humans give owing to their contact with animals. Consequently, scholars focusing on the anti-anxiolytic impacts of the presence of an animal have often used the blood pressure and heart rate as the indicators of arousal ( Fine, 2015 ). Nevertheless, there has been a focus on such attributes as state anxiety; skin temperature; the manifestation of stress in behavior; and the levels of triglycerides, cholesterol as well as phenylethylamine in the plasma. Despite differences in findings by various scholars, it is undeniable that particular animals are likely to result in calming effects for some individuals in specific contexts. Likewise, the fact that an animal’s presence reduces arousal does not imply that other activities or interventions that do not involve animals are not likely to be as useful.
Social Mediation
Animals act as mediators or catalysts of human social interactions and are useful in expediting the process of building rapport between therapists and patients. For instance, animals can stimulate a conversation owing to their impulsive behavior and presence or by offering an external and neutral subject on which an individual can focus ( Fine, 2015 ). Efforts to expound on the social-facilitation impacts of animals have also yielded similar results across different populations. Moreover, based on the psychoanalytic theory, there is a consensus that patients can discuss or reveal difficult, conflicts, feelings, thoughts, events or motivations by first projecting them onto a fictional or real animal ( Fine, 2015 ). To support the concept of animals’ ability to expedite the building of rapport, studies in this regard have established that individuals are likely to be perceived as less threatening, happier, more relaxed, wealthier and friendlier when they are seen in the company of a friendly animal. This is as opposed to when the animal is absent.
Walking a dog has been shown to significantly increase an individual’s positive interaction with a stranger in both familiar and unfamiliar surroundings. It is due to this phenomenon that dog-walking programs have been used to treat psychiatric inpatients that are considered not only socially withdrawn but also unresponsive to different treatments ( Cherniac k & Cherniack , 2015; Fine, 2015 ). In this regard, individuals participating in a dog-walking intervention are likely to exhibit a decrease in the response time once a therapist poses questions. They are also likely to show an increase in the number of words they use in responding, and lastly, an increase in the percentage of questions answered is possible ( Fine, 2015 ). It has also been shown that animals can change the perceptions of social desirability as well as increase social interactions between strangers. Coupling this phenomenon with the fact that animals aid in the rapport building process of a therapist and a patient, as well as in enhancing interactions, the use of animals in therapy has overreaching implications. The fact that an animal makes a therapist friendlier, more relaxed, happier, and less threatening implies that some patients are likely to attain an enhanced sense of comfort promptly. Besides improving the perception of a patient towards the healthcare provider, the presence of an animal offers a pleasant, external topic of conversation for the two to focus on. This aspect of AAI is particularly crucial given that retention and compliance in treatment, coupled with treatment outcomes are all strongly associated with the quality of the therapeutic relationship between a patient and his or her therapist.
Attachment Theory
Inherent in the conceptualization of AAI is the narrative that loving bonds have to be established between humans and animals ( Mills & Hall, 2014 ) . Notably, these attachments play a pivotal role in helping patients to attain therapeutic gains ( Fine, 2015 ). The theories associated with social needs and attachments are useful in the development of an understanding of the value of including animals in therapy. Part of the broad understanding of attachment is the notion of a transitional object. A transitional object refers to an object that offers comfort to a child and aids in alleviating the developmental stress that is associated with the separation of the child from his or her primary caregiver. In therapeutic scenarios, animals help to lessen the burden associated with therapy’s initial stages ( Mills & Hall, 2014 ). The animals achieve this by playing a diverting and comforting role until a sound rapport is established between the patient and therapist.
Animals act as both transitional objects and attachment figures. However, the two roles are mutually exclusive. For instance, while an attachment alludes to an emotional bond that is long-lasting, the term ‘transitional’ refers to passage from one state to another in which case a lasting bond does not exist. Likewise, a transitional object is likely to lose meaning with time. In the context of AAI, the use of animals as transitional objects, as opposed to attachment figures, is more desirable therapeutically ( Fine, 2015 ). A transitional object acts as the link to a higher and level of functioning that is more socially acceptable. This is as opposed to acting as a substitute to inadequate and failed human relationships. While the formation of emotional bonds between humans and animals is encouraged, the establishment of strong attachments within the course of short treatment periods is therapeutically and ethically incorrect.
Attachment is a component of the theory of social provisions. The social provisions theory is needs-based and is anchored on the assumption that certain aspects of an individual’s psychological well-being can only be fulfilled via social relationships ( Fine, 2015 ; Mills & Hall, 2014 ). Besides attachment, other social provisions include reassurance of worth, guidance, the need for social integration, opportunities for nurturance, and lastly reliable alliance. This theory is highly relevant to AAI, particularly as regards the need for a human-animal bond and the acknowledged role of animals as avenues for nurturing behavior. Animals have also been associated with being empathetic in that they can sense and appropriately respond to peoples’ emotions and feelings ( Hosey et al., 2018; Cherniac k & Cherniack , 2015) . Further, they have been acknowledged as being capable of giving unconditional love. Thus, overall, the ability of animals to be non-judgmental confidantes or the source of unconditional positive regard during therapy cannot be overstated.
Animals as Tools of Behavioral and Cognitive Change
A crucial aspect of AAI is the use of animals as interactive and living tools that are utilized in helping individuals to see themselves and the world around them in new ways. Animals also aid in adding new responses and skills to the peoples’ behavioral repertoires. The most outstanding feature in the appreciation of animals as tools of behavioral and cognitive change is an emphasis on the establishment of a working and strong relationship between a particular animal and the patient ( Fine, 2015 ).
Social Cognitive and Cognitive Theories
Social cognitive and cognitive theories are based on the belief in the existence of a continuous reciprocal relationship between an individual's environment, cognition, and behavior ( Fine, 2015 ). Therapy is aimed at bringing out positive changes in a patient's self-perception and consequently his or her behavior. This is achieved through improvements in the person's internalized locus of control, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Change and learning, in this case, take place via imitation, observation, and direct association and/or instruction. In AAI, clients are expected to learn desirable behavior through observation. This notion is referred to as modeling. Another key benefit associated with AAI is the capacity of animals to help patients learn more about the most appropriate social interactions as well as the cause and effect of their prevailing behavior ( Fine, 2015 ). In this case, animals are deemed useful in offering feedback on social behavior owing to their ability to provide an immediate, honest and unambiguous response to both aversive and pleasurable stimuli.
Other aspects of the social cognitive theory that are not only interrelated but also relevant to the incorporation of animals in therapy include personal agency, self-efficacy, and performance accomplishment. Self-efficacy refers to the belief in an individual's ability to engage in behaviors that are likely to result in a desirable and expected outcome. Performance accomplishment, on the other hand, refers to the successful adoption of behavior that was previously feared. Self-efficacy and performance accomplishment are related in that performance accomplishment plays a vital role in enhancing feelings of self-efficacy ( Fine, 2015 ). Personal agency entails a condition in which individuals begin to believe that they are capable of actualizing things that will benefit them and others. Often, AAIs are structured around enhancing personal agency, self-efficacy, and performance accomplishment.
Cognitive theories are also vital in ensuring that care is taken while acknowledging the benefits of AAIs particularly those that are aimed at addressing feelings of inferiority and helplessness. It is undeniable that a person’s social environment does not equally reward his or her achievements and skills. Thus, failure to excel in skills that are culturally valued cannot be compensated via mastery of alternative ones. If an intervention is aimed at providing generalized and long-term increases in self-efficacy feelings, the intervention has to underscore the attainment of skills that socially desirable ( Fine, 2015 ). The intervention also has to be characterized by continued learning even when the intervention ends. Lastly, the intervention has to foster a high probability of successful mastery.
Role Theory
Similarities exist between the social cognitive theory and role theory. The latter, for instance, emphasizes the way social environments shape the process of development ( Fine, 2015 ). A role in this context is conceptualized as a set of behaviors that are characterized by a socially agreeable function as well as a code of norms that is generally accepted. According to the role theory, as individuals embrace new roles, they often modify their behaviors so as to conform to the new role expectations ( Fine, 2015 ; Bynum, 2013 ). The nature of the changes, whether positive or negative, is dependent on an individual's assumed role and the context in which the function is assumed. Interventions that are geared toward modifying behavior often achieve this by requiring patients to take up a new role. This new role is expected to offer the patient an opportunity to learn or to attain a positive change. However, a distinction exists between this phenomenon and role plays. As opposed to just acting out a role, this theory requires individuals to assume the new position in the actual sense.
The reason for not embracing simple role play is the fact that patients may end up seeing themselves as just performing a part. In this case, if the patients abandon the role, they are also likely to cease embracing the behaviors associated with the role. The supporters of the role assumption approach reckon that the approach gives a higher probability for successfully assimilating news behaviors into the patient's existing behavior repertoire ( Bynum, 2013 ). Various AAI models are based on the tenets of the role theory. For example, any intervention that gives individuals an opportunity to care for or train for animals provides the person with the opportunity to take up the role of a caretaker or a teacher.
Forms of Animal Assisted Interventions
The modes of action, as well as the resultant benefits of AAI, are unique. The two aspects are also dependent on the type of AAI in question. Consequently, AAIs can be classified into three distinct categories that include Animal Assisted Therapy (AAT), Animal Assisted Activities (AAA), and Animal Assisted Education (AAE).
Animal Assisted Therapy
History and Setting
Animal Assisted Therapy refers to a goal-oriented intervention that is capable of being integrated into different types of therapy in which a human-animal interaction is used as a basis for the therapeutic process ( Couling, 2017 ; Maujean , Pepping & Kendall , 2015 ). This form of AAI is used in numerous modalities, with different types of animals, in different settings, and with persons of varying ages. While animals offer different recreational and emotional benefits, the mere reception of these benefits via interaction with animals does not necessarily equate to therapy. Thus, the distinction between animal therapy and animal activities is essential. Therapy alludes to treatments that are aimed at addressing psychiatric conditions and diseases. This implies that AAT can only be used in defining goal-oriented AAIs that are spearheaded by trained professionals with the aim of treating either physical or mental health conditions ( Couling, 2017 ). Animal Assisted Therapy is versatile but differs from both AAE and AAA. In particular, AAT is spearheaded by a trained human service or health professional who uses the approach as a way of improving his or her services. The alternatives, AAE and AAA both entail activities that incorporate animal interactions, and whose context is not therapy. For instance, AAT may involve the use of an animal which interacts with a client with such a particular therapeutic goal as the reduction of anxiety.
The use of human-animal interactions was first used in 1792 to improve mental health ( Couling, 2017 ). In the procedure, patients took care of various animals in the process facilitating their well-being through reduction of the need for restraints and medication. Subsequently, animals were intensively used in the 19 th century in the inpatient psychiatric care facilities. The first use of dogs in AAT to help in enhancing psychiatric care took place in 1919. However, the use of AAT especially in psychiatric care facilities declined significantly in the 20 th century. The decline was as a result of the emergence of psychotropic medications. The modern AAT research and practice are based on the work of Dr. Boris Levinson ( Couling, 2017 ) . Levinson’s interest in AAT began when a child client who was struggling with communication started playing with his during a counseling session. During one of their sessions, Levinson left the child with the dog and on coming back found the child speaking and playing with the dog. The child had not spoken much before the encounter with the dog but this changed due to the dog's presence. Thus, Levinson concluded that the dog had not only facilitated rapport between him and his client but had also enhanced the overall therapeutic relationship ( Couling, 2017 ). Drawing upon this experience, Levinson hypothesized that when animals are used in therapy, they play the role of transitional objects that eventually help children with behavioral and emotional struggles to first relate to the animal and subsequently to the therapist. Ultimately, the children can relate to other people.
Levinson reckoned that therapy animals assume the role of co-therapists in four distinct ways ( Couling, 2017 ). Firstly, the animals could take the role of a psychotherapeutic assistant in counseling. In this case, the therapy animals act as supplementary therapeutic tools that aid in facilitating the client's comfort. Secondly, the animals could be used as stand-alone therapists for patients that foster strong relationships with the animals. In this case, the patients should have the capacity to work with animals so as to help them to express themselves better. Thirdly, therapy animals can be used as catalysts to the therapeutic change. Further, Levinson believed that just like paraprofessionals and peer support, therapy animals are capable of providing an alternative medium of offering social support ( Couling, 2017 ). Lastly, Levinson reckoned that therapy animals could help patients to connect with nature and improve their mental health. The two can be achieved by giving the individuals more opportunities for enthusiasm and happiness. Ultimately, Levinson reckoned that animals offer unconditional love which is vital in fulfilling the clients' emotional needs during therapy. In particular, the scholar argued that AAT enhances a client's self-worth, reduces negative cognitions and feelings, and enhances his or her psychosocial development ( Couling, 2017 ). Consequently, Levinson posited that these factors played a crucial role in decreasing depression amongst therapeutic patients. Drawing upon Levinson’s efforts, AAT as a scholarly field has developed to become an innovative realm of research and practice in physical as well as mental health fields. Majority of Levinson’s early ideas have been incorporated into the current AAT practice. Notable among these ideas is the notion that AAT is pursued in the context of a goal-oriented process of treatment whose aim is to enhance a patient’s social, emotional and physical functioning.
Animal Assisted Therapy is executed by a trained professional who resorts to using therapy animals in his or her practice with the aim of enriching the therapeutic process. As a result, numerous professional are capable of facilitating AAT. Nevertheless, AAT is mostly used by social workers, psychologists, speech therapists, occupational therapists and physiotherapists among others.
Animal Assisted Therapy and Counselling
One of the most common settings of AAT is psychotherapy and counseling. With regard to counseling, AAT is a crucial component of numerous therapeutic approaches. This incorporation is aimed at facilitating self-esteem, rapport between a therapist and his or her client; sense of control; empathy; and lastly client acceptance ( Amerine & Hubbard , 2016). Consequently, therapy animals can be incorporated into the counseling process in numerous ways. Firstly, therapy animals can be utilized as avenues of assessment in which case the client's interactions and comments with the animals are keenly observed. Secondly, some counseling patients may experience fewer difficulties when indirectly expressing their experiences as opposed to using direct talk therapy. When this happens, such clients can be helped by a therapy animal to share their story via projection. For instance, victims of sexual abuse may use the animals to show the nature of abuse rather than directly speaking to a counselor. Thirdly, animals may be useful in helping a client to better understand or relate to his or her experiences when utilized as tools for metaphor and storytelling. Fourthly, the modeling of an animal-therapist relationship can be used by patients to help them learn how to constructively solve problems and set boundaries in case an animal participates in a behavior that is deemed undesirable or inappropriate in therapeutic settings. Lastly, therapy animals can be used to teach in counseling settings. One of the most common reasons for people to engage in therapy is to obtain help during periods of loss and grief ( Couling, 2017 ). A therapist in such a scenario helps a patient to understand loss, grief, and death by explaining the life cycle of the therapy animal, and connecting this to the grief that animals and human beings experience following loss.
Animal Assisted Therapy and Counselling
The use of AAT in speech therapy is geared towards helping patients to improve their communication and reading skills. This is achieved by encouraging the patients to communicate with and read loudly with the therapy animals ( Couling, 2017 ). Such an initiative includes the Reading Education Assistance Dog program (READ Program). The program uses dogs to assist children that have reading challenges. It also offers such children safe spaces in which they can read in the presence of, or to a therapy dog. When used in school going children, such a program has been shown to enhance confidence, peer relationships, reading comprehension, hygiene and reading motivation. Such programs may also be used by speech therapists to assist patients in improving their communication, reading, and speech.
The Use of Animal Assisted Therapy in Social Work
The use of AAT in social work is anchored on the ecological view that human beings experience change owing to reciprocal transactions that take place in their environments ( Couling, 2017 ). Informed by this narrative, therapy animals help social workers by assuming the role of transitional objects that assist patients in establishing relationships with the social workers quickly. Therapy animals can also be used in the assessment process and as objects via which the patients can share scenarios in their lives that are similar to those of the therapy animals. Thus, there are similarities between the benefits of AAT that are experienced in social work with those found in counseling.
The Use of Animal Assisted Therapy in Physical and Occupational Therapy
Occupational and physical therapists use AAT to assist individuals in improving their physical health. In this case, the animals' movements help improve the mobility of patients as well as reduction of pain (Elmaci & Cevizci, 2015). Hippotherapy is one notable AAT in this regard. During hippotherapy, a horse’s movement helps in improving the mobility and flexibility of clients.
Benefits of Animal Assisted Therapy
Animals contribute to numerous psychological benefits by filling the patients' emotional desires and needs for acceptance, love, trust, and respect. In this regard, the persons involved in AAT are given the opportunity to work with animals that act as sources of responsive and non-judgmental support. The animals thus aid in fulfilling the patients’ emotional desires and needs. For instance, Hunt & Chizkov (2014) argue that AAT is useful in reducing feelings of anxiety, isolation, depression, and withdrawal. Animal Assisted Therapy has also been shown to assist in addressing a behavioral challenge like Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Another closely related challenge is the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) ( Couling, 2017 ). For instance, persons suffering from ADHD experience challenges in identifying social cues and self-regulating, which results in various behavioral problems ( Hoagwood , Acri, Morrissey & Peth-Pierce , 2017). The use of AAT in such cases is likely to improve the individual prosocial behavior and social skills as well as reduce behavioral challenges (Busch et al., 2016; Schuck, Emmerson, Fine & Lakes 2015). On the other hand, persons who have ASD are likely to experience challenges communicating. In this case, AAT facilitates social interactions for ASD patients and those suffering from language impairment (Boyer & Mundschenk, 2014).
Animal Assisted Therapy plays a vital role in enhancing patients' physical health. Consequently, such aspects of AAT like hippotherapy aid in dealing with chronic pain and mobility challenges. In this regard, some key benefits of AAT include enhanced balance and motor function and reduced muscle spasms (Elmaci & Cevizci, 2015). In patients suffering from chronic pain, AAT aids in reducing the levels of pain ( Calcaterra et al., 2015; Harper et al., 2015).
Animal Assisted Activities
History and Settings
In AAA, therapy animals together with their handlers are involved in activities that take place in social institutions with the aim of enhancing recreation, education, and motivation ( Couling, 2017 ). Thus, AAA is not carried out in the context of goal-directed education or therapy. For instance, a dog may be taken to a nursing home with the aim of spending time with the patients. The dog thus sits with the patients, who pet it in return ( Glenk, 2017 ) . Animal Assisted Activities were the first forms of AAI to be used in education and human services. This form of therapy began with people working and playing with animals in interactions that were unstructured. With time, however, scholars were able to experience the benefits of working with animals. Consequently, various professionals responded by incorporating therapy animals in their work. As a result, AAA is used in numerous scenarios including those external to education and human service sectors
The use of animals in healthcare is anchored on the scientific notion that animals are beings whose benefit to human health cannot be ignored. One argument in this regard is the fact that outpatients who own dogs are likely to live longer compared to those that are not dog owners. Based on this view, the use of AAA in health care settings is often focused on critical care units, children’s hospitals, and facilities offering long-term care ( Couling, 2017 ). Animal Assisted Activities are not used as stand-alone forms of treatment. Instead, animals are used as a source of unconditional love and support to persons whose presence of staff and human companions is not enough. The goal of using AAA in hospitals is to improve the sad and scary environment as well as improve mood (Chur-Hansen, McArthur , Winefield, Hanieh & Hazel 2014). This requires that care is taken to ensure the health of the therapy animal, all sanitary guidelines are adhered to, and that all immune-compromised patients are kept out of risk. For example, an immune-compromised patient should not interact with an animal or other sick patients.
The occupants of long-term facilities, who are often seniors exhibit unique struggles that are related to their physical and mental health. Notable among these struggles are isolation, depression, and loneliness. The use of therapy animals in such facilities aids in supporting the patients, meeting their emotional need and offering companionship ( Couling, 2017 ). Other seniors are likely to experience deteriorated communication and mobility. In such cases, therapy animals give non-verbal support via touch as well as various forms of interaction which enhances the cognitive and emotional welfare of the seniors. For AAA in long-term facility settings to be successful, the chose therapy animal has to be appropriate for the population. The most common animals in such settings include birds, dogs, rabbits, fish, cats, and small rodents. Another key consideration to be made is the fact that the seniors might not be in a position to take full-time care of the chosen animal if it resides on site. Thus, this responsibility has to be given to a member of staff or any other person who is comfortable with the responsibility.
Animal Assisted Activities have also been incorporated into commercial enterprises. Key enterprises in this regard include airports and hotels. Incorporation of AAA is aimed at enhancing the enterprises' vocation environments through the inclusion of a lively animal ( Couling, 2017 ). It is envisaged that the animal is appreciated and enjoyed by both patrons and staff. Besides enhancing interactions, the animals also enrich the patrons and staff relaxing activities. However, if the animals are used to attract customers, their use ceases to be considered AAA. Uncertified and unsupervised interactions with therapy animals are also discouraged due to the risk that exists for the animals and individuals involved. Thus, each animal should have a handler who is knowledgeable about it. He or she has to advocate for the animal and remain in tune with its body language and behavior. Moreover, the handler should be trained and certified in AAI.
Animal Assisted Activities are useful in correctional facilities whereby they are used to enhance the recovery and rehabilitation of prisoners. The adoption of animal programs in prisons is informed by the notion that human-animal interactions in prison populations are useful in improving the inmates’ psychological and behavioral outcomes ( Couling, 2017 ). In some programs, inmates are taught how to train the dogs while in others, the prisoners help abused and injured animals. In exchange, the animals give the inmates both support and comfort. In most cases, prisons do not use animals for the sole purpose of providing therapeutic support to the inmates. Instead, the programs are focused on offering education that is related to training, animal behavior or animal grooming. Every institutional program is not only unique but also makes use of different types of AAI programs.
Benefits of Animal Assisted Activities
Involving individuals in AAA has been associated with reduced symptoms of anxiety and depression. This form of AAI is also associated with various cognitive benefits. For instance, in individuals with personality disorders, schizophrenia or severe affective disorders, AAA plays a crucial role in improving self-efficacy, self-determination, and self-esteem as well as strengthening the coping strategies ( Couling, 2017 ). Animal interactions have also been linked to physiological effects. Animal Assisted Activities have been associated with amplified activity in the prefrontal cortex of persons suffering from depression.
Animal Assisted Education
Animal Assisted Education is a structured and goal-oriented intervention whose facilitation is done by an education professional. The facilitator in using this intervention is motivated by the need to assist students with pro-social skills, academic goals, and cognitive function and at the same time monitor their progress ( Couling, 2017 ). This intervention bears similarities with AAT in that is used by a professional, but instead of being used in therapy, it is used in education. First introduced in the 1940s in an educational setting, AAE required that children in the school spent time working with animals. The children’s interaction with animals was deemed useful in provide socialization, education, and companionship. Incorporation of therapy animals in educational settings helps in giving students feedback regarding their behavioral, emotional and social needs via a medium that is engaging (Baumgartner & Cho, 2014). For AAE programs in schools to be effective, they have to be supported by parent staff and students. They also have to be characterized by well-developed plans and clear goals,
Most AAE programs entail read-aloud programs that geared towards encouraging students with reading challenges, communication difficulties, and impaired language. Reading aloud to an animal is associated with numerous benefits. These include increased motivation to read, improved reading comprehension, improved communication skills which boosts self-esteem, and lastly, increased confidence (Boyer & Mundschenk, 2014; O'haire, Guérin & Kirkham, 2015 ). Jenkins et al. (2014) argue that by reading to someone else, an individual is put under pressure to read correctly. However, animals are not likely to be bothered by whether or not all words are said rightly. Instead, the animals will continue to offer positive support to the individual experiencing reading or communication difficulties.
The Nexus of Volunteerism and Animal Assisted Interventions
Understanding Volunteerism
Volunteering is often linked to religion and can be traced back to Britain during the medieval times. During this period, volunteerism was closely associated with helping those in need especially the sick and needy. It is thus estimated that between the 12 th and 13 th centuries, England has about 50 voluntary hospitals ( Hochbaum , 2015 ). Despite this early genesis, use of the phrase ‘to volunteer’ was used first in 1755. The term was in direct reference to the act of giving oneself to serve in the military and has a French origin. While the term is highly related to the need for military aid, the term is anchored on the need for constant protection from numerous external dangers. It is this same need that helped in the spread of the term. Organized volunteerism came to fore in the 19 th century ( Hochbaum , 2015) . This is as exemplified by the establishment of such entities as the Young Men's Christian Association (YMCA). Founded in London in 1844, the YMCA has since grown to encompass numerous charitable activities such as spreading Christianity, offering athletic activities, teaching different skills, and undertaking humanitarian work.
Volunteerism was further enforced during the Civil War. For instance, volunteer efforts of Clara Barton during the war are believed to have signaled the initial steps towards the establishment of Red Cross. Additional voluntary organizations were established in the 20 th century as exemplified by the Rotary and Lions Clubs ( Hochbaum , 2015 ). The former allows persons from diverse backgrounds to come together, create friendships, exchange ideas, and ultimately lead change. The latter is comprised of successful individuals who come together for the sake of the community’s greater good. Another critical shift in the area of volunteerism took place at the end of World War II. Following the end of the war, volunteer efforts were directed overseas for the first time ( Hochbaum , 2015) . In this case, volunteer efforts became globally-minded as exemplified by the Peace Corps which was established in the U.S in 1961. The internet has emerged as a crucial driver of volunteerism in the 21 st century and ensures that volunteers are not limited by their physical location.
Volunteerism lacks a standard practice and thus conceptualizing a volunteer is often challenging. Currently, volunteers are involved in thousands of organizations, and their roles in these organizations are highly varied ( Whittaker, McLennan & Handmer, 2015 ). As a result, volunteers cannot be considered as a single group since they come from diverse backgrounds, have different ages, and their skills and experiences vary. Irrespective of the chosen understanding, volunteership is characterized by an element of exchange ( Kelemen , Mangan & Moffat , 2017; Alspach , 2014 ; McAllum, 201 4). In this regard, volunteers are driven by costs and benefits irrespective of the fact that these individuals contribute their time without remuneration and coercion. Volunteership should also be viewed as a continuum in which free choice ranges from a person’s free will to his or her obligation to volunteer while remuneration varies from none to either a small pay or a stipend ( Kelemen et al., 2017) . Therefore, the actual conceptualization of a volunteer is based on the costs and benefits associated with his participation. High net costs to the volunteer signal purity of the volunteer activity and imply that the volunteer is real ( Kelemen et al., 2017; McAllum, 2014 ). Thus, altruistic motives are requisite for a person to be considered a volunteer. Volunteership can take the form of donating time for the common good or to a given project; participating in the activities of a non-profit organization; campaigning for a change in policies or laws of interest; and helping in emergency and non-situations. Some firms offer their employees time off work so that they can increase the volunteer pool and volunteer work in the community. Increasingly, volunteerism has also become an indispensable part of the operations of non-profit organizations.
Non-profit organizations rely on volunteers to executive their missions and achieve objectives ( Forbes & Zampelli, 2014 ; McAllum, 2014 ). These organizations use volunteers in the provision of direct services to their clientele. Directly, volunteers are engaged as coaches, mentors, tutors, or information providers. Volunteers may also be used indirectly to support the organizations by helping in the management and coordination of staff, clientele, and other volunteers ( McAllum, 2014 ). In other cases, the volunteers may assist the staff in implementing, planning or evaluating the objectives and goals of the non-profit organization. However, non-profits are more dependent on direct service volunteers as opposed to indirect ones. An increase in the former is also likely to increase the latter. This implies that direct and indirect volunteers are valued differently by non-profit organizations and that using a standardized value to measure the value of volunteers to an organization is not likely to be accurate.
The benefits of volunteers to a non-profit organization are realized once its objective, mission, and goals are met. The benefits that accrue owing to use of volunteers in non-profits include cost savings, ability to efficiently provide essential community services, access to specialized skills, enhanced public support, and improved attention to the targeted clientele which leads provision of quality services ( McAllum, 2014 ). The net benefits of engaging volunteers in the operations of non-profits are however measured by calculating the difference between the volunteers' contributions and the challenges of administering the volunteership program. The overall benefits of volunteer involvement act as indicators of the performance of a given volunteer program. In measuring this, there is a need to explore the involvement of volunteers in organizations as well as the value that the volunteers obtain from this involvement. This information is vital as the organizations make resource allocation decisions.
Theories of Volunteerism
Volunteers are vital to a country’s social and economic development. However, volunteership is characterized by an increased need for volunteers and a decline in the number of persons willing to take up such roles. This phenomenon necessitates organizations to focus on the attraction and retention of volunteers keenly. In the non-profit sector, such aspects as volunteer turnover intention and work engagement are essential due to their close association to actual turnover and organizational performance respectively ( Andronic, 2014 ). To maximize engagement and reduce turnover intention, optimization of organizational procedures is requisite. Achievement of these efforts requires an understanding of the motivation behind volunteership. There is a consensus amongst scholars in this field that individuals have different reasons for engaging in volunteership ( Andronic, 2014 ; Forbes & Zampelli, 2014 ). Some reasons in this regard include the need to satisfy social and psychological needs; the fact that a member of the family is a beneficiary of the particular program; influence from parents; presence of a social-adjustive intention; and the need for recognition among other reasons. The different motivations for engaging in volunteership can be explained using various theories.
Self-determinism
The self-determination theory (SDT) is based on the narrative that every individual has an innate tendency to grow towards a more unified and elaborated sense of self ( Eisenbach, 2015 ; Güntert & Wehner ; 2015 ; Webb , Repetto, Seabrooks-Blackmore, Patterson & Alderfer 2014). To attain this level of self, people are likely to be attracted to and embrace activities in which they are motivated autonomously. In such scenarios, the persons have control over their decisions and are likely to exercise personal choice. According to SDT, people seek to fulfill three essential psychological needs. The three needs are competence, autonomy, and relatedness ( Eisenbach, 2015 ). The need for competence pertains to the desire by a person to feel that he or she can successfully accomplish the desired outcomes, achieve certain performance standards, and overcome various challenges. The need for autonomy, on the other hand, pertains to an individual's desire to have ownership of his or her behavior as well as act according to his or her volition. Lastly, a person's need for relatedness is associated with the desire to care for and connect with others. This psychological need is closely related to having a sense of being in connection with others, and having secure unity and communion with them.
Self-determinism reckons that the three needs are not only complementary with regard to optimal functioning but also their satisfaction is determined by the social context within which they occur ( Andronic, 2014 ; Güntert & Wehner ; 2015 ). This theory also reckons that motivation as a concept is directly associated with the satisfaction of basic needs. Thus, it can be argued that even in their pursuit of volunteerism, human beings are chiefly driven by the need to fulfill their psychological needs. The degree to which these needs are satisfied acts as a determinant of the different forms of regulated or motivated behavior that occur in various situations and contexts. According to STD, motivation is classified into controlled and autonomous motivation ( Güntert & Wehner ; 2015 ; Andronic, 2014 ) . Autonomous motivation entails the different dimensions of how individuals feel regulated, or how they have identified with a given activity’s value. It also pertains to how the persons have mainstreamed the activity into their sense of self. Autonomous motivation can thus be divided into intrinsic and integrated motivation.
Intrinsic motivation denotes an ideal state at which individuals engage in an activity based on their interest, thus deriving pleasure and satisfaction from the activity. This form of motivation acts like the typical form of autonomous or self-determined behavior. Conversely, an individual may be motivated extrinsically ( Andronic, 2014 ). Extrinsic motivation can be divided into integrated and identified motivation. The former is the more autonomous of the two and is exhibited when a person’s volunteering behavior blends with his needs, values, and goals. Identified regulation is less self-determined as an extrinsic motivation and entails conscious valuation of behavior and regulation as well as accepting that the particular behavior is personally meaningful. In this case, an individual may volunteer for a cause to which he or she can adhere. The importance of autonomous motivation is thus exemplified by an increased prevalence of integrated and identified regulation as well as intrinsic motivation. Controlled motivation is comprised of external and introjected regulation ( Andronic, 2014 ). External regulation entails being motivated by the need to avoid punishment or to acquire an external reward. It is also the least autonomous of the extrinsic motivation. Introjected regulation, on the other hand, entails an external regulation which has been internalized slightly but not fully accepted as an individual's own. Such regulation is performed in a bid to shame or guilt, or to enhance one's ego of self-worth feelings.
Controlled and autonomous motivations direct and energize volunteer behavior. This is as opposed to amotivation which is characterized by a lack of drive and intention. A critical defining principle of volunteership is the need for people to engage in it freely ( Güntert & Wehner ; 2015 ). Thus, the presence of amotivation and controlled motivation is often viewed paradoxically. Another interesting observation in the same light is that motivation can be controlled either internally or externally. An example of external control occurs in learning institutions whereby community service is required of every student. Internal control takes place when the need to escape the negative feelings associated with being more fortunate than others or the need to gain respect and prestige motivate individuals to volunteer. The need to satisfy human needs acts as an important avenue for understanding how controlled, or autonomous motivation are affected by different situations and contexts ( Eisenbach, 2015 ). Thus, self-determinism posits that increased satisfaction of basic psychological needs results in increased autonomy of motivation. Likewise, feelings of autonomy and competence facilitate full internalization. However, to ensure that external regulations attain full internalization, satisfaction of the relatedness need might not be sufficient. Nevertheless, satisfying the relatedness need aids in fulfilling the need for autonomy and competence by creating avenues for enhancing support and information. Thus, satisfying the need for relatedness, competence and autonomy play different roles in the internalization process.
Functionalism
Volunteerism is defined by ongoing, sustained, and voluntary helpfulness. These attributes support the need to focus on the motivational perspective of volunteership and subsequently explore the motivations behind peoples' pursuit of volunteer opportunities. Also, it is important to establish how people can commit to voluntary helping as well as sustain these efforts over long periods of time. The basis of motivational inquiry is thus the need to understand the processes concerned with initiating, directing, and lastly sustaining volunteership efforts ( Andronic, 2014 ) . Functionalism plays a crucial role in understanding these processes. This approach is associated with the purposes, goals, reasons, and plans that inform and drive the social and personal functions that individuals’ actions, thoughts, and feelings serve. The tenets of functionalism are inherent in the perspectives that underscore the purposeful and adaptive struggles of individuals in pursuit of social and personal goals. According to this theory, individuals are likely to undertake the same actions in a bid to serve different psychological functions. Another aspect of functionalism is that similar attitudes can serve diverse functions for different individuals and attempts at changing these attitudes can only succeed if they address the functions that those attitudes serve.
The themes of functionalism that have been instrumental in understanding the processes and phenomena related to social cognition, personality, persuasion, attitudes, and social relationships are crucial in understanding the motivations of engaging in volunteership activity ( Andronic, 2014 ). When viewed from a functionalism perspective, volunteerism entails acts that appear similar at face value but in the real sense are characterized by diverse motivational processes. Likewise, the functions of volunteerism are manifested in the subtleties that unfold during volunteering. This manifestation also influences the critical events that are associated with initiating and maintaining the voluntary helping behavior. Functionalism is also concerned with purposes and reasons behind the generation of such psychological phenomena as the goals, social and personal needs, functions, and plans that are served by peoples’ actions and beliefs (Pierce, Johnson, Felver, Wanless, & Judge, 2014 ) . Consequently, another core premise of functionalism is that while different individuals can perform similar actions, the actions end up serving dissimilar psychological functions for the different persons. Therefore, despite having similar attitudes and engaging in the same behaviors, the behaviors and attitudes only end up satisfying motivational functions that differ.
Attitudes serve different purposes. Some serve knowledge functions with the aim of fostering a sense of understanding. Others have a value-expressive function and help individuals to express their deeply held dispositions, values, and convictions. Some bear an ego-defensive role that prevents individuals against threatening and undesirable truths about themselves. Further, attitudes may carry utilitarian functions in which they reflect experiences that have punishing and rewarding events. When attitudes assist individuals in fitting with important reference groups, they end up serving a social-adjustive role. Based on functionalism, there are six critical motivations behind volunteering ( Andronic, 2014 ). Firstly, people volunteer in a bid to develop and enhance their careers. Secondly, they do so with the aim of enriching and enhancing their personal development. Thirdly, people may be motivated by the need to conform to or establish norms for those close to them. Fourthly, volunteering is embraced with the aim of escaping any negative feelings. Fifth, volunteers are motivated by the prospect of practicing their underutilized abilities or acquiring new skills. Lastly, volunteers are motivated by the need to express associated with their altruistic beliefs.
Functionalism serves as the foundation of developing the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI). The VFI is comprised of thirty items that are arranged along six sub-scales and is used to measure the motivations for volunteering ( Li , Wu & Kee, 2016 ; Pierc e et al. , 2014 ). Each of the six sub-scales has five items that are aligned with one of the six motives of volunteering. The six motives include career, values, protective, understanding, enhancement, and social. Measurement of each item is carried out via a 7-point Likert-type scale that ranges from 1 to 7. The functional approach to understanding volunteership is compatible with the SDT with regard to explaining the motivation behind volunteering ( Pierce et al., 2014). For example, there is a consensus that volunteering empowers those participating in it. First, volunteering promotes a sense of efficacy and a lifestyle that is deemed productive. By taking part in volunteership services individuals not only enrich their lives but also impose a positive influence those they serve. As a result, volunteers are likely to experience a feeling of self-efficacy or a sense of enhanced generativity. Consequently, volunteering satisfies the need for competence.
Volunteering also fosters integration by encouraging social participation. In this case, it helps in establishing rewards that are mutually-rewarding for all the parties involved. The resultant sense of socialization aids in satisfying the relatedness need. Further, since it is an intentional need that relies on the volunteer to not only initiate help but also sustain help, volunteership aids in meeting the autonomy need. Measurement of the satisfaction of three psychological needs of competence, relatedness, and autonomy can be measured using the Volunteer Satisfaction Index (VSI). This tool is comprised of twenty-six items whose response is measured through a 7-point Likert-type scale that ranges from one to seven ( Pierce et al., 2014). The VSI boasts four satisfaction dimensions including empowerment, organizational support, group integration, and participation efficacy.
Volunteering in Animal Assisted Interventions and Satisfaction of Handlers Involved
Volunteership has emerged as an integral component of AAIs. This is particularly the case with the therapeutic changes and developments experienced recently. Specifically, the integration of companion animals in AAI implies that the role of volunteers in therapeutic processes cannot be ignored ( Chur-Hansen et al., 2014; Nepps et al., 2014 ). For instance, the visiting companion programs that offer AAT or AAA are driven by the presence of highly dedicated groups of volunteers. Further, the world today is not only technologically complex but is also characterized by multiple stressors. In such scenarios, volunteers are increasingly open to the idea of involving their pets as they visit the individuals they may have never met and who they couldn't have met if it were not for their involvement in AAIs. The willingness of volunteers to help others while in the company of their pets underscores the growth of volunteership in AAIs.
Volunteers have emerged as essential components of various aspects of AAI. Likewise, they are increasingly recognized as being crucial in fostering relationships between human beings owing to their love for animals. For example, companion animals are used as a means of enhancing conversations in AAT and AAA sessions. For the elderly, owing to love for animals, strong bonds are likely to be established between a senior and the volunteer involved ( Mills & Hall, 2014 ). This rapport acts as a source of encouragement for the senior to become more agreeable and subsequently accept other sources of assistance that may be extended to him or her ( Kamioka et al., 2014 ). Involving volunteers in AAIs is undoubtedly bound to enhance the experiences. The role of volunteers or handlers in AAIs should be appreciated in light of the particular therapeutic goals that have to be attained with the assistance of a licensed professional therapist. In this case, a healthy relationship is required between a therapist, client, volunteer, and animal. This relationship is vital for the success of the therapeutic process.
The therapist’s attention should be solely focused on his or her client. The animal, on the other hand, ensures that the client focusses on his or her needs. Due to the incorporation of handlers in the therapeutic process, the therapist only worries about the animal during the session that it is required since a volunteer is on standby to take care of it once the session ends. The animal handler has to be trained in AAI skills to ensure that he or she does not interrupt the therapeutic process. The handler, therapist, and animal are required to create time to know each other. Further, the therapist has to dedicate time towards understanding the animal's non-verbal cues ( Kamioka et al., 2014; Nepps et al., 2014 ). However, the presence of a volunteer handler in the therapy session influences the session significantly. Ultimately, the satisfaction of the volunteer handler is anchored on the ability of their pets, in their presence, to offer assistance to participants of AAIs.
References
Alspach, J. G. (2014). Harnessing the Therapeutic Power of Volunteering. Critical Care Nurse , 11-14. doi:10.4037/ccn2014239
Amerine, J. L., & Hubbard, G. B. (2016). Using Animal-assisted Therapy to Enrich Psychotherapy. Advances in mind-body medicine , 30 (3), 11-11.
Andronic, R. L. (2014). Volunteering: Theoretical approaches and personal characteristics. Scientific Research & Education in the Air Force-AFASES , 2 , 475-478.
Baumgartner, E., & Cho, J. I. (2014). Animal-assisted activities for students with disabilities: Obtaining stakeholders' approval and planning strategies for teachers. Childhood Education , 90 (4), 281-290.
Boyer, V. E., & Mundschenk, N. A. (2014). Using Animal-Assisted Therapy to Facilitate Social Communication: A Pilot Study. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology & Audiology , 38 (1).
Busch, C., Tucha, L., Talarovicova, A., Fuermaier, A. B., Lewis-Evans, B., & Tucha, O. (2016). Animal-assisted interventions for children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A theoretical review and consideration of future research directions. Psychological reports , 118 (1), 292-331. doi: 10.1177/00332941156266331
Calcaterra, V., Veggiotti, P., Palestrini, C., De Giorgis, V., Raschetti, R., Tumminelli, M., ... & Ostuni, S. (2015). Post-operative benefits of animal-assisted therapy in pediatric surgery: a randomized study. PloS one , 10 (6), e0125813.
Cherniack, E. P., & Cherniack, A. R. (2015). Assessing the benefits and risks of owning a pet. Canadian Medical Association Journal , 187 (10), 715-716.
Chur-Hansen, A., McArthur, M., Winefield, H., Hanieh, E., & Hazel, S. (2014). Animal-assisted interventions in children's hospitals: A critical review of the literature. Anthrozoös , 27 (1), 5-18.
Couling, K. (2017). Facilitating an animal-assisted intervention program: the risks and rewards of working with animals in helping and educational settings.
Eisenbach, K. E. (2015). The'Mooring'of Rural Canada: Youth Volunteerism in Fragile Communities (Doctoral dissertation).
Elmac i , D. T., & Cevizci, S. (2015). Dog-assisted therapies and activities in rehabilitation of children with cerebral palsy and physical and mental disabilities. International journal of environmental research and public health , 12 (5), 5046-5060.
Fine, A. H. (Ed.). (2015). Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Foundations and guidelines for animal-assisted interventions . Academic Press.
Fine, A. H., & Beck, A. M. (2015). Understanding Our Kinship with Animals: Input for Health Care Professionals Interested in the Human–Animal Bond. In Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (Fourth Edition) (pp. 3-10).
Forbes, K. F., & Zampelli, E. M. (2014). Volunteerism: The influences of social, religious, and human capital. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly , 43 (2), 227-253.
Fujimura, C. K., & Nommensen, S. (2017). Cultural Dimensions of Well-being: Therapy Animals as Healers . Lexington Books.
Glenk, L. M. (2017). Current perspectives on therapy dog welfare in animal-assisted interventions. Animals , 7 (2), 7.
Goddard, A. T., & Gilmer, M. J. (2015). The role and impact of animals with pediatric patients. Pediatric Nursing , 41 (2), 65.
Güntert, S. T., & Wehner, T. (2015). The impact of self-determined motivation on volunteer role identities: A cross-lagged panel study. Personality and Individual Differences , 78 , 14-18.
Harper, C. M., Dong, Y., Thornhill, T. S., Wright, J., Ready, J., Brick, G. W., & Dyer, G. (2015). Can therapy dogs improve pain and satisfaction after total joint arthroplasty? A randomized controlled trial. Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Researc h, 473 (1), 372-379. doi: 10.1007/s11999-014-3931-0
Hoagwood, K. E., Acri, M., Morrissey, M., & Peth-Pierce, R. (2017). Animal-assisted therapies for youth with or at risk for mental health problems: A systematic review. Applied Developmental Science , 21 (1), 1-13.
Hochbaum , A. (2015). The History of Volunteerism at a Glance. Retrieved from https://www.givingway.com/blog/the-history-of-volunteering-at-a-glance
Hosey, M. M., Jaskulski, J., Wegener, S. T., Chlan, L. L., & Needham, D. M. (2018). Animal-assisted intervention in the ICU: a tool for humanization.
Hunt, M. G., & Chizkov, R. R. (2014). Are therapy dogs like Xanax? Does animal-assisted therapy impact processes relevant to cognitive behavioral psychotherapy?. Anthrozoös , 27 (3), 457-469. doi: 10.2752/175303714X14023922797959
Jenkins, C. D., Laux, J. M., Ritchie, M. H., & Tucker-Gail, K. (2014). Animal-assisted therapy and Rogers’ core components among middle school students receiving counseling services: A descriptive study. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health , 9 (2), 174-187. doi: 10.1080/15401383.2014.899939
Jenkins, R. (2014). An interpretive phenomenological analysis on volunteerism within a healthcare environment (Order No. 3628677). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (1620451998). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.library.capella.edu/docview/1620451998?accountid=27965
Kamioka, H., Okada, S., Tsutani, K., Park, H., Okuizumi, H., Handa, S., ... & Honda, T. (2014). Effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Complementary therapies in medicine , 22 (2), 371-390.
Kelemen, M., Mangan, A., & Moffat, S. (2017). More than a ‘little act of kindness’? Towards a typology of volunteering as unpaid work. Sociology , 51 (6), 1239-1256.
Li, C., Wu, Y., & Kee, Y. H. (2016). Validation of the Volunteer Motivation Scale and its relations with work climate and intention among C hinese volunteers. Asian Journal of Social Psychology , 19 (2), 124-133.
Maujean, A., Pepping, C. A., & Kendall, E. (2015). A systematic review of randomized controlled trials of animal-assisted therapy on psychosocial outcomes. Anthrozoös , 28 (1), 23-36.
McAllum, K. (2014). Meanings of organizational volunteering: Diverse volunteer pathways. Management Communication Quarterly , 28 (1), 84-110.
Melson, G. F., & Fine, A. H. (2015). Animals in the lives of children. In Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (Fourth Edition) (pp. 179-194).
Mills, D., & Hall, S. (2014). Animal-assisted interventions: making better use of the human-animal bond. Veterinary Record , 174 (11), 269-273.
Nepps, P., Stewart, C. N., & Bruckno, S. R. (2014). Animal-assisted activity: Effects of a complementary intervention program on psychological and physiological variables. Journal of evidence-based complementary & alternative medicine , 19 (3), 211-215.
O'haire, M. E., Guérin, N. A., & Kirkham, A. C. (2015). Animal-assisted intervention for trauma: A systematic literature review. Frontiers in psychology , 6 , 1121.
Pierce, D., Johnson, J., Felver, N., Wanless, E., & Judge, L. (2014). Influence of volunteer motivations on satisfaction for undergraduate sport management students. Global Sport Business Journal , 2 (2), 63-72.
Schuck, S. E., Emmerson, N. A., Fine, A. H., & Lakes, K. D. (2015). Canine-assisted therapy for children with ADHD: preliminary findings from the positive assertive cooperative kids study. Journal of attention disorders , 19 (2), 125-137. doi: 10.1177/1087054713502080
Sheade, H. E., & Chandler, C. K. (2014). Cultural Diversity Considerations in Animal Assisted Counseling. Ideas and Research You Can Use: VISTAS .
Valiyamattam, G., Yamamoto, M., Fanucchi, L., & Wang, F. (2018). Multicultural Considerations in Animal-Assisted Intervention. Human-Animal Interaction Bulletin, 6 , 82-104
Valiyamattam, G. J., & Devi, P. N. (2016) Scope of Human-Animal Companionship for Self-Transcendence. Journal of Indian Psychology , 29 (1&2), 135-153.
Webb, K., Repetto, J., Seabrooks-Blackmore, J., Patterson, K. B., & Alderfer, K. (2014). Career development: Preparation, integration, and collaboration. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation , 40 (3), 231-238.
Whittaker, J., McLennan, B., & Handmer, J. (2015). A review of informal volunteerism in emergencies and disasters: Definition, opportunities and challenges. International journal of disaster risk reduction , 13 , 358-368.
