Respecting evolution, compare and contrast the perspectives of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer
Charles Robert Darwin and Herbert Spencer were two of the most popular personalities who specialized in the theory of evolution during the mid-nineteenth century. There were notable similarities and differences in the principles of evolution presented by these two authors. As far as similarities are concerned, Darwin and Spencer had similar ideologies about the concept of natural selection. Both scientists agreed that organisms undergo change over a period of time. The only difference was the process of how species underwent changes. For example, Herbert Spencer was the first to use the term “evolution” in 1851. According to Spencer, evolution refers to the changes in species geared towards a specific direction, in which the change has to be from something simple to complex (Freeman et al., 1974). On the other hand, Darwin defined evolution as the hereditary changes that occur among species over time, regardless of the direction of change which was the pivotal point in Spencer’s definition of the term evolution (Freeman et al., 1974). Spencer’s evolutionary theory was more progressive compared to Darwin. Hence, Spencer believes that the changes that species undergoes through must be towards the improvement of the existing features or characteristics of the organism. However, modern anthropologists argue this principle of evolution where organisms can only improve and progress. This paved the way for the term devolution which is used to describe the changes that reports a decrease in the complexity of organizations. Another significant similarity between Darwin and Spencer was the “survival of the fittest” concept which they both used to describe the principle of natural selection. Again, it was Spencer who coined the phrase “survival of the fittest.” However, Spencer’s concept was not designed as a general principle of Nature unlike Darwin (Youmans, 1874). The concept behind the principle of the survival of the fittest can be applied to both organisms and the society in general. On the other hand, Charles Darwin’s concept of the survival of the fittest was based on the merits of the principle of natural selection. Darwin asserts that environment plays an important role in determining who will survive and who will perish.
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Outline Chomsky’s Influence on Behaviorism and Psycholinguistics
Noam Chomsky has been reputably known as the Father of Modern Linguistics. He was credited for initiating the “cognitive revolution,” an intellectual movement that started sometime during the 50’s which is aimed at studying the mind and the its mental processes (Royer, 2006). Chomsky argued that the structure of language is determined biologically as it is a product of the human mind. Thus, he said language is genetically transmitted. Chomsky furthered that all human beings share a similar fundamental linguistic structure, which is not shaped or influenced by sociocultural differences. Given this understanding and belief, Chomsky rejected the theory posited by B.F. Skinner, also known as the radical behaviorism that views the mind as a tabula rasa, or a blank state. Skinner believed that language is a learned behavior. Children are not born capable of understanding a particular language, along with the rules of grammar. Due to the child’s exposure to people, a child learns to master a particular language. Thus, a Japanese child born and raised in the United States where he is exposed to people speaking the English language will learn and master English even if he was born Japanese. Language is not like the other modes of communication that animals used to communicate with one another. Chomsky being a nativist believes that language is one of the skills and abilities that is innate to man as it is hard-wired into the individual’s brain at birth. Chomsky supports this argument by arguing that language cannot be a learned behavior because it is a special skill that is only attributed to human beings. However, Chomsky also explained that syntactical knowledge is partially inborn (Chomsky, 2015). Thus, children only need to learn certain parochial feature of their native language to be able to understand and articulate it with the same mastery and level of ease as compared to acquire language learned through linguistic stimulation.
Describe and explain Witmer’s contribution to the field of clinical psychology
Lightner Witmer is an American psychologist who coined the term “Clinical Psychology” during the late nineteenth century (O'Donnell, 1979). Witmer initiated and pioneered a lot of significant breakthroughs in the field of clinical psychology. He established the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania and published the first clinical psychology journal at about the same time he established the first clinical psychology hospital and school in 1907. Witmer was influenced by the renowned experimental psychologist James McKeen Cattell, while he was working on an emerging school of psychology. During his stay at Pennsylvania, he noticed the significant differences produced after examining a wide range of subjects during their laboratory experiments. When Witmer was left to continue the works left by Cattell and Wundt, he became interested in pursuing the understanding of the different behavioral and learning problems he observed among children. The children with difficulties relating to sleep disturbances, speech difficulties, hyperactivity, behavioral problems, and refusal to stay in school were brought in by their parents and teachers to Witmer’s clinic for evaluation (O'Donnell, 1979). A complete physical and mental examination were administered to the children to rule out any physiological symptoms that might have been causing the problem. Upon discovering that there are no pressing physiological issues with the child, Witmer will conduct series of psychological assessment to determine what could be causing the problem. In 1907 Witmer attempted to explain Clinical Psychology to people by coming up with a journal that gives the public a primer on what clinical psychology deals with on a day-to-day basis (Routh, 1996). Witmer emphasized how clinical psychology is directly related to medicine and little bit involved in sociology and pedagogy. He also stressed the importance of both analytic and methodical analysis of data to arrive at the root cause of the problem. Many psychological issues can be explained by medical science, as with the case of mental illnesses and cognitive disabilities. By understanding the physiological and the biological properties of human behavior, a good presentation of behavioral outcome is possible. Witmer emphasized that while majority of the outward manifestations of psychological problems are rooted from physiological and biological imbalance, it is also important to understand the role of society and the environment in triggering the manifestations of symptoms. Witmer also developed several treatments designed to address mental, physical or moral handicap with the goal of improving their problems and differences. It was in fact, under Witmer’s time when the blending of “normal children” and “impaired children” was initiated to determine the differences in the groups’ behaviors, abilities, and limitations. Furthermore, this approach allows for the principle of peer-learning that was aimed at motivating and influencing the mentally and physically-challenged children.
References
Chomsky, N. (2015). Syntactic structures . Mansfield Centre, Conn.: Martino.
Freeman, D., Bajema, C., Blacking, J., Carneiro, R., Cowgill, U., & Genovés, S. et al. (1974). The Evolutionary Theories of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer [and Comments and Replies]. Current Anthropology , 15 (3), 211-237. Doi: 10.1086/201464
O'Donnell, J. (1979). The clinical psychology of Lightner Witmer: A case study of institutional innovation and intellectual change. Journal of The History Of The Behavioral Sciences , 15 (1), 3-17. Doi: 10.1002/1520-6696(197901)15:1<3::aid-jhbs2300150102>3.0.co;2-l
Routh, D. (1996). Lightner Witmer and the first 100 years of clinical psychology. American Psychologist , 51 (3), 244-247. Doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.51.3.244
Royer, J. (2006). Impact of the Cognitive Revolution on Educational Psychology . Charlotte: Information Age Publishing.
Youmans, E. (1874). Herbert Spencer and the Doctrine of Evolution | Teaching American History. Retrieved from http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/herbert-spencer-and-the-doctrine-of-evolution/
