1. How would you define creativity? How does creativity relate to divergent thinking? How might you apply the concepts of analogy, conceptual combination, or conceptual expansion to develop a novel idea, application, or service? [250-252]
Creative thinking can be described as the art of innovatively formulating solutions to problems of the development of fresh ideas from previous knowledge. Scholars agree that creativity is not based on intelligence but rather on the ability of an individual to think in creative ways ( King , 2016). Psychologists, therefore, developed methods of measuring creativity such as divergent and convergent thinking. Divergent thinking allows for new perceptions of situations. Conversely, convergent thinking focuses on developing one specific answer to a problem. One may apply the concepts of analogy, and conceptual combination and expansion in developing ideas and formulating solutions.
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2. Does the language we use determine how we think? How does this relate to gender bias in language? [258-259]
According to the hypothesis of linguistic relativity, the cultural and linguistic settings in which one is raised affects their thinking, perceptions, and opinions (King, 2016). Nevertheless, the question of whether language directly affects one's view of the world is complicated due to the variables involved. According to scholars, while English speakers focus on the verb in a sentence to determine the time at which specific events took place, other non-English speakers may concentrate more on the source of information. Some thus argue that language does indeed shape people's thoughts. Similarly, this relates to gender bias based on the fact that some communities attribute prominent titles to males and therefore, a bias against females.
3. Is language unique to humans, or can animals acquire rudimentary language skills? Explain. [259-260]
Language is defined as the art of using structured words or phrases to communicate verbally or non-verbally. Non-verbal cues, including the use of sign language, are a form of communication and hence described as a language. Scholars have then found that apes and gorillas communicate none verbally based on the fact that they lack the vocal apparatus to speak like humans ( Bolton, 2017) .
4. What evidence is there to suggest that differences in math and science skills between boys and girls may be primarily due to social or cultural factors? [265-266]
Evidence-based on studies conducted to research girls’ and boys’ confidence in their ability to perform mathematical functions suggests that social and cultural factors affect the significant gap existing between the two ( Bolton, 2017) . While both genders can perform equally, girls require encouragement to achieve higher grades in math.
5. Does intelligence consist primarily of underlying general factor, or is it more accurate to say that there are multiple intelligences? Are there strong arguments for either position? How would you describe the present consensus on this issue in psychology? [267-270]
While scholars in past decades failed to understand how intelligence differed from individual to individual, recent studies have shown a significant contribution to general underlying factors of knowledge (King, 2016). This then classifies individuals since the underlying factor is defined as the individual's ability to perform effectively on individual tests involving mathematical or scientific skills. There is thus a continuous debate regarding the existence of different types of intelligence. This paper finds various theories currently explaining the different kinds of intelligence.
6. What does research tell us about the impact of heredity and environment on human intelligence? Can you make the argument that both have a substantial impact on intelligence? Explain. [270-273]
Research suggests that half of an individual's IQ score can be attributed to hereditary genes of intelligence (Bolton, 2017). This was concluded after various studies conducted by scholars which depicted a correlation between IQ scores of individuals who were biologically related. A child's parents are thus likely to determine a significant amount of the intelligence quotient while the remaining portion may be attributed to environmental influences. According to research, the environment shapes an individual's perceptions as well as their IQ and creative abilities (Bolton, 2017).
7. What evidence is there that environmental factors appear to explain racial differences in IQ scores? What evidence appears to contradict genetic explanations for racial differences in IQ? [272-273]
Evidence suggests that there exist differences in the recorded IQ tests of individuals based on race, which can then be attributed to environmental influences ( Cacioppo & Freberg, 2018) . Based on the fact that environmental factors determine a student's accessibility to books and other resources in the underdeveloped countries while children in developed countries are allowed access to the same hence the gap between IQ scores based on race. Americans generally score higher points during an IQ test than African Americans, thus contradicting the argument of the genetic contribution to intelligence.
8. What does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs suggest about the multidimensional nature of human motivation? What are some possible criticisms of Maslow’s theory? [284-285]
Maslow presents a set of needs that determine human behavior ranging from self-actualization to self-esteem. The theory, therefore, suggests a specific order to the factors affecting human motivation while disregarding the fact that human beings may act in different ways. According to the author, human beings seek the satisfaction of basic needs, including food, shelter, and water. While some individuals may prefer satisfaction, others prefer achieving higher goals in life. The theory further posits that humans seek essential satisfaction before exploring other needs, such as physiological factors.
9. What are some cultural differences in emotional expressions and display rules? Why might knowledge of these differences be relevant in the world of business? [305-307]
Cultural settings dictate a variety of human aspects such as their perceptions, the display of emotional expressions, and rules. The display rules are defined as acceptable forms of emotional expressions depending on different cultures. While some communities prohibit public displays of emotions, others encourage the same with differences in how they are expressed. A distinct example of the same is the difference between an American and British smile. While Americans genuinely express their joy, Britons contort their faces. Knowledge of this may be helpful in business as one may consider focusing on the vocal tone rather than facial expressions.
10. What are some possible ways that individuals might go about increasing personal happiness? [307-308]
Happiness is specific to individual preferences. Increasing personal satisfaction thus involves the development of close intimate relationships with friends as well as establishing religious beliefs. Happier people invest in promoting the same in others hence successful marriages and overall lives.
11. What is emotional intelligence? What triggers anger reactions? What are some suggestions for managing anger? [314-317]
Emotional intelligence refers to the art of identifying and controlling one's emotions. This further involves the incorporation of self-control, which in turn allows for self-reflection and evaluation hence the ability to manage one's feelings. Similarly, such aspects as motivating oneself are further enhanced by emotional intelligence as well as the ability to recognize emotions in others and helping them manage the same. Managing anger requires self-reflection and evaluation.
12. Is the polygraph reliable? Why might police continue to use polygraph testing if it is unreliable? [315]
The polygraph was a concept invented by psychologists to detect lying using a series of control questions. The idea behind the issue involves the physical and mental changes when an individual tells a lie. Nevertheless, scholars have found the method inaccurate based on the fact that they may lead to the arrest of innocent people dealing with nervousness ( Reeves, 2015) . The polygraph is, therefore, an incorrect method using inappropriate concepts. Nevertheless, the police may continue using the technique based on noted effectiveness and reliability in some instances.
Critical Thinking Question 1: What are some sources of motivation for human behavior? Give an example of how a specific behavior might be motivated by more than one motivator. Why has instinct theory largely fallen out of favor as an explanation for human behavior? [280-286]
The most recognized source of motivation for human behavior is the satisfaction and fulfilment of basic biological human needs, such as food and shelter. Other factors, such as instincts further contribute to human behavior based on the need for humans to adopt and adhere to their natural surroundings. Similarly, the drive theory that facilitates the maintenance of internal states acts as another source of motivation, while arousal consequently allows for human behavior to be motivated.
References
Bolton, N. (2017). The psychology of thinking . Routledge.
Cacioppo, J. T., & Freberg, L. (2018). Discovering Psychology: The science of mind . Cengage Learning.
King, L. A. (2016). The science of psychology: An appreciative view . McGraw-Hill Education.
Reeves, J. W. (2015). Thinking about thinking: Studies in the background of some psychological approaches . Routledge.
