The human memory is processed in the body's central nervous system. The system consists of the brain, the spinal cord, neurons, and neurotransmitters among others. The memory process is a complicated procedure that involves the incorporation of body senses and the nervous systems to ensure that the brain can acquire meaningful information that will enable it to respond to stimuli. Once the brain acquires the stimuli in the form of information, it will store it for a varying amount of time leading to types of memories. The discussion will analyze the memory process and types, also highlighting the functions of the two processes.
Memory Process
Three steps complete the memory process. According to Feldman (2011), they include encoding, storage, and recalling of information. Encoding is a major step in the creation of new memory. It functions to allow the perceived stimuli to be changed into a form that can be stored in the brain and then at a later date as either a short-term or long-term memory. Encoding, therefore, begins with perception. The second step is referred to as attention where memorable events make the neurons to fire impulses frequently increasing the chances that a given event is encoded in the memory. Emotion has been identified to heighten attention. Types of encoding include acoustic encoding, visual encoding, tactile encoding, and finally semantic encoding. Acoustic encoding involves the input of auditory and sound elements while visual encoding deals with images. Tactile on the other hand concerns perception build through the sense of touch, and lastly, semantic encoding involves senses that have a specific meaning.
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The second step in the memory process includes the storage of information. It is a passive procedure of retaining information inside the brain. The brain works as a filter to ensure that it only stores information that can keep human beings sane. Repetition of information over and over again is important in ensuring long-term memory is enhanced. It is believed that the long-term memories are not stored in one compartment in the brain but rather in several. Therefore, in the absence of the disease that affects the human brain, it can store an unlimited amount of information for a long time.
Thirdly is the memory retrieval stage. It is also referred to as the recalling phase that involves re-accessing of information from past events which had already passed the process of encoding and storage. It is the process of remembering an event. During this process, the brain tries to repeat a specific pattern of activity that was generated in response to a given action. The act of thinking and remembering involves the same mechanism. The process of recall can be classified into three, i.e. the free recall, the cued recall, and the serial recall as asserted by Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian (2013). The free recall involves the remembering of events in any particular order while in cued recall people are assisted using specific guidelines. Thirdly, the serial recall involves chronologically remembering items as they occurred. Forgetting is described as the inability to retrieve a memory that has been encoded into the brain. Forgetting can either be temporary or permanent. Forgetfulness increases as the ageing process continue as neurons begin to wear and die off.
The process of memory consolidation involves the stabilizing of information in the brain after the acquisition. The process of sleeping has particularly been identified to promote the process of consolidation. Reconsolidation involves consolidating information that has been recalled all over again. This process can be responsible for changing the initial memory.
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
It is the shortest-term aspect of memory. It involves the retention of sensory impression immediately after the end of stimuli. Memory is received through various senses such as sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. Such information is retained accurately but for a concise period. The information decays at a rapid rate. The types of sensory memory include the visual, auditory, and the touch memory. The visual memory is also referred to as iconic memory; the auditory known as the echoic, and finally the touch is known as haptic. The iconic memory involves visual stimulation through the process of making images in mind. On the other hand, echoic memory deals with auditory information involving sound waves that have been sensed by the hair cells in the human ears. Finally, the haptic memory involves various sensations from the body in the form of touch. The human body has sensory receptors all over.
Short-Term Memory
It involves the temporary recall of information that is being processed at any given time. It can also be described as the ability of the brain to recall and process information simultaneously. It holds a very small amount of information that is readily available for a very short time, typically between 0 to 15 seconds. Hinton and Anderson (2014) state that information that is held in the short-term memory does not involve concepts but rather channels, links, and pointers that can quickly enable a person to make a decision. The information is likely to disappear at a first rate unless deliberate efforts are made to retain it. Through enhancement of repetition, a short-term memory can be stored in the brain to form what is known as the long-term memory. The part of the brain that plays a role in short-term memory is the prefrontal cortex. The region plays two fundamental functions. First, it serves as a temporary storage for the short-term memories and secondly, it retrieves information from elsewhere in the brain to aid the process of reasoning. Also, the short-term memory has a small capacity, which is proved when one is trying to remember random items and fails. The characteristics of the information in question can also influence the likelihood of retention of information in the short-term memory. An example is short words, or more commonly used words tend to be recalled faster. The contents in the short-term memory decay spontaneously depending on their nature. Rehearsal and repetition can enhance this type of memory.
Long-Term Memory
It involves the storage of information for a longer period. The information here takes a large period to decay and can store an unlimited amount of information. Long-term memory results due to the consolidation, rehearsal, and association of short-term memory. Baddeley (2010) asserted that Long-term memory stores information in a semantic way, meaning that the information is based on meaning and association. The problem with retrieval in this type of memory is due to accessibility as opposed to availability. There are several types of long term memory namely the procedural memory, semantic memory, episodic memory, and autobiographical memory.
Procedural Memory - This is a long term memory that involves knowing how to perform duties or doing things. It involves the knowledge on how to perform various motor skills such as movement and coordination. It is described as an unconscious and automatic memory that is not declarative. Examples of this type of memory would include the knowledge of how to ride a bicycle. A second example of this type of memory is depicted by sports personnel who require thorough practice to enhance their skills on the pitch. When athletes and other sports person play on the pitch, most of the time they depend on anticipation to make moves. This is an example of a procedural memory that is acquired over time.
Semantic Memory is the second type of long-term memory that involves the storage of information about various realities of the world. It involves understanding and perceiving the meaning of words, beliefs, concepts, and general knowledge. It also includes simple inferences such as knowing letters, capital cities, and towns among others. It, however, requires a conscious mind and it is a declarative form of memory. An example of semantic memory would apply in the case where a person is having problems with identifying colors, but with proper exposure and time, they can determine many colors due to the buildup of memory.
Episodic Memory is also another long-term memory that stores information about events uniquely as pointed out by Conway (2009). The events are drawn from various life experiences, and it involves the conscious mind. It is also a declarative form of memory. An example of episodic memory would be in the case where people have attended a party such as a homecoming, birthday, or a wedding party. When those who have attended give an account of their experiences, each would give it depending on their unique experiences. Some would say it was fascinating while other would say that it was boring. Such a unique account of life experience is what entails an episodic memory.
Finally, the autobiographical memory is a long-term memory that stores information about vital life events in a person's life. It is commonly confused with episodic memory, but this type involves notable events that have an impact on a person's life. Such events would include the first day of school, graduation day, wedding day, or a celebration of an anniversary. It is a conscious type of memory and also declarative. Every person in their lives has this type of memory, and either fear or excitement can enhance it.
Declarative memory involves facts and events and also includes the consciously recalling of events. It is also referred to as explicit memory. Examples of declarative memories include semantic, episodic, and autobiographical memory. Procedural memory is not declarative because it does not include recalling of events and knowledge is acquired via the unconscious mind. The information in this type of memory is stored and retrieved explicitly. Long-term memories can also be classified based on the direction of the memory. In retrospective memory, people, events, and words that are remembered are basically in the past. On the other hand, in prospective memory, the content to be recalled is found in the future. It may include booking an appointment with the doctor, setting up an alarm to wake-up in the morning, or planning for a future event. Prospective and retrospective are dependent on each other, and where there is impairment in one, the other is also affected.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the human brain and psychology at large are a complex entity that requires the integration of various entities to understand properly. The memory process begins with encoding, storage, and then retrieving information. The process of consolidation can also be included as it helps in the storage process. The types of memory available include the sensory memory, the short-term, and the long-term memory. The long-term memory is further divided into the semantic, episodic, autobiographical, and procedural memories. The brain also has various neurons and transmitters that work in synergy to ensure that memory is stored and retrieved appropriately. The effectiveness of these parts is partly enhanced by the nature of the information, how frequent it is perceived, and the age of the person in question.
References
Baddeley, A. (2010). Working memory. Current biology , 20 (4), R136-R140.
Conway, M. A. (2009). Episodic memories. Neuropsychologia , 47 (11), 2305-2313.
Feldman, R. S. (2011). Essentials of understanding psychology . Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Hinton, G. E., & Anderson, J. A. (Eds.). (2014). Parallel models of associative memory: updated edition . Psychology press.
Plotnik, R., & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2013). Introduction to psychology . Cengage Learning.
