Terrorism remains one of the most debilitating threats that carry numerous far-reaching consequences on the political, economic, and social landscape of a country. Other than disturbing the economic and political order of countries, the prospect of terrorism continues to threaten many lives globally. The definition of terrorism still remains unclear thanks to its multifaceted nature. Terrorism is, on many occasions, confused with other similar activities such as insurgence and guerilla warfare. Despite the challenges in defining terrorism, it is generally agreed that it is an act of violence accompanied by intimidation meted against civilians for political pursuits. It is a well-documented fact that before an individual becomes a terrorist; they have to undergo a thorough radicalization process. Using sociological lenses, it is possible to predict the drivers that influence individuals to undergo radicalization and eventually engage in acts of terror.
One of the major international terrorist groups with global influence is Al-Qaeda. The terrorist group has claimed responsibility for many terrorist activities such as the 9/11 in the United States. When assessing group level factors for radicalization, it is important to look at the push, pull, and the personal characteristics that might contribute to the desire to join an extremist group. Radicalization and terrorism among the Al-Qaeda members have largely been influenced by religious extremism. Over the last century, many terrorist groups have emerged claiming to act in the name of Islam. Also, the unstable conditions in countries such as Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan have created an enabling environment for the radicalization of people and the establishment of groupings such as Al-Qaeda.
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The Pull, Push, and Personal Factors of Radicalization
The issues surrounding the entry into violent extremism remain contentious among scholars. However, following the 9/11 attacks on the US soil, significant attention has been placed on assessing the primary reasons that could contribute to radicalization. According to Vergani, Iqbal, Ilbahar, and Barton (2018), the radicalization factors can broadly be divided into the push, pull, and personal factors. According to the authors, the push factors emphasize the presence of a certain form of deprivation in the social setting. The deprivation can exist in the form of injustice, marginalization, inequality, victimization, and social exclusion, among others (Vergani et al., 2018). In the context of the Al-Qaeda, the push factors can be interpreted as the aggressive brand of politics meted by the Western states in the Muslim countries. A good example is the Global War on Terror. As retaliation, the jihadist groups engage in through the process of radicalization. Other than the push factors, the pull factors are also responsible for the widespread radicalization spearheaded by Al-Qaeda.
An example of the pull factors, according to Vergani et al., (2018) is the extremist propaganda. In explaining this, the author says, “The fundamental characteristic of propaganda that predicts radicalization into violent extremism is the justification of violence” (p.10). The recruits undergo an intense period of dehumanization and moral disengagement in a bid to justify violence. In the context of the Al-Qaeda terror group, religion and knowledge of the Islam teachings have been utilized as a way of sanitizing the widespread violence. However, the reality is that most of the extremists are less religious and have inadequate knowledge of religious texts. The Islamic religion has often come out as a peace-loving outfit and also denounced the acts of terror. However, the recruitment slogan in the jihadist movements centers on fighting the will of Allah. According to the extremists, violence against a perceived injustice is a provision of the Quran, the Islam holy text. The sanitization of violence among the Al-Qaeda and the rest of the Islamic terror groups remains a significant aspect of discourse.
The third categorization of the drivers for radicalization is known as personal factors. According to the research performed by Vergani et al. (2018) asserts that individuals with e mental or psychological health problem are more likely to undergo the radicalization. Some of the aspects that these individuals face include loneliness, reduced self-esteem, and general misfit. As regards the cognitive and personality aspects, the author says that candidates tend to show signs such as “a personal crisis, a cognitive opening, and the consequent search for meaning that is then fulfilled with extremist worldviews” (p.11). Personal factors also address the narrow demographics of people who are more likely to be recruited during the radicalization process. As seen in many terrorist activities involving the Al-Qaeda, the perpetrators are mainly young, male, and exhibit signs of far-right extremism. The terrorists tend to have a criminal and drug abuse record. They also possess military experience which informs their knowledge of weapons. The continued violence in the Middle East countries has enabled members of the Al-Qaeda group to accumulate enough weapons for their activities.
Relationship between Radicalization and Extremism
According to the United Kingdom (UK) government, radicalization is defined as “the process by which a person comes to support terrorism and forms of extremism leading to terrorism” (Dzhekova, Stoynova, Kojouharov, Mancheva, Anagnostou, & Tsenkov, 2016). Al-Qaeda has been at the forefront of major terrorist attacks in various parts of the world. A large part of the casualties always involves civilians. Based on their history of radicalization, these individuals have accepted violence as a way of achieving their political and socioeconomic goals. Terrorism is a problem that stems from a sense of political discontent. Schmid (2013) draws a close relationship between radicalization and extremism by asserting that the latter comes as a result of alienation and humiliation. As the radicalization process continues to thrive, virulent extremism comes as a result. The Al-Qaeda employed a special form of extremism known as the religious extremism, which formed the basis for their radicalization and violent actions across the world. According to the membership of the group, strict adherence to religious law should form the modus operandi of a country.
The stringent adherence to religious law also forms the basis of political, social, and cultural life. According to Islamist extremists, violence is an acceptable means of achieving a cause they deem just. In further discussing the relationship between radicalization and extremism, Schmid (2013) says, “A collective or individual desire for revenge against acts of repression may be a motive enough for terrorist activity” (p.2). The Al-Qaeda group based their radicalization on the quest, mete their revenge against the US for meddling in the affairs of the Middle East countries. The attacks on the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania exemplified their desire to reiterate their displeasure in the way the US conducted their global operations. During the 9/11 attacks, the terrorists attacked the Pentagon, which serves as the US military headquarters. The goal of the Al-Qaeda was to promote global fear and weaken the position of the US on matters of the world community. The recruitment, therefore, focused on revenge, which eventually led to extremist actions that were witnessed in the form of terror.
Schmid (2013) asserts that terrorist groups such as Al-Qaeda have been guided by a single goal. During the radicalization process, the candidates are informed that the main objective of this movement is to empower the Islamic nation to fight Western power, including their culture. The author further looks at radicalization and its impact on extremism from three fundamental points of view including the micro-level, meso-level, and the macro level. The micro-level aspect focuses on individual characteristics such as marginalization, alienation, and humiliation among others. The meso-level happens at the group level, where the individuals rally against an oppressive regime leading to the formation of a terrorist group. The macro-level happens at a larger scale and might involve the creation of terrorist networks that cover the whole country (Schmid, 2013). During the radicalization process, the candidates are fed propaganda and inaccurate sentiments about their perceived enemies. The overall outcome is the development of radical and violent extremist sentiments, which might involve violence and self-harm for the overall good. The 9/11 attack is a classic example of how extremist sentiments could lead to self-harm so long as the overall goal is achieved.
Theoretical Foundations of Radicalization and Terrorism
Several theoretical points of view have emerged in an attempt to explain the cause of radicalization and terrorism in the world. The first theory that explains why radicalization and terrorism occurs is known as the social movement theory (SMT) or the network theory. Dzhekova et al. (2016) explain that such theories are crucial in understanding the role of networks and social bonds that exist in society. In explaining the process of radicalization, SMT looks at the interactions of an individual and their alignment to the philosophies of a larger group. Therefore, SMT focuses on how an individual is recruited and how they join a group by buying into the values and beliefs. In putting the theory into the context of the Al-Qaeda movement, it is important to understand and appreciate the concept of Islamic radicalization. According to Dzhekova et al. (2016), there are three fundamental ways in which Muslims in the Middle East countries are influenced to join the radical terror groups. The authors classify these processes as “cognitive openings, religious seeking, and constructing sacred authority” (p.17).
In explaining this, Dzhekova et al. (2016) say that in most cases, the terrorist groups in the Middle Eastern region have what they refer to as a “leaderless jihad.” Members of these groups join for several years before engaging in other unrelated acts of crime. However, most of these members do not have a strong attachment to the group. As the members continue attachment with the group, they borrow the radical and often extremist sentiments that place them at the core of the terrorist organization. The next theory that can be assessed is known as personal motivation theory. Ibrahimi (2017) says, “Individuals become aggressive when they feel frustrated by something or someone they believe is blocking them from fulfilling a strong desire” (p.6). Scholars, however, reject the presence of a terrorist personality. Instead, terrorism is a result of a complex interrelationship between the individual and the social, economic, and political matrix. The theory debunks the fact that terrorists are abnormal people with mental health hurdles that contribute to the manifestation of their behavior. Personal motivation theories emphasize the importance of looking at terrorists from their environmental context rather than focusing on the pathologies.
A refined form of the personal motivation theory is known as the “quest for significance” theory. According to Ibrahimi (2017), motivated individuals on many occasions, rely on the power of collectivism to engage in acts of terrorism. Through collectivism, individuals are better poised to get a sense of group identity. The group provides the individual with a sense of empowerment, allowing them to accept the ways and values. Based on this theory, Al-Qaeda was formed due to the desire of the individuals to engage its enemies in revenge and, most importantly, to enjoy a sense of significance. For many years, the US has been perceived as an enemy in the Middle East region. According to the jihadist groups, the acquisition of a group identity was essential in confronting the US, which had, for a long time, supported the atrocities meted against the innocent Muslims. Another theoretical aspect of terrorist engagements can be looked at from a group ideology point of view. Research focusing on the lone wolf terrorism found that there is a general pattern of interconnectedness among the major terrorist groups of the world.
In justifying the commonalities between the terrorist group factions, Hamm & Spaaij (2015) say, “To validate the commonality, there must be evidence of both a personal and political grievance for any given case” (p.7). The relationship does not necessarily have to be material. As exemplified by these authors, sympathy remains one of the major factors that exhibit a form of affinity between two or more terrorist groups. Although the lone wolf terror groups existed as an entity, they sympathized and shared certain ideologies with other outfits. Therefore, the theory of group ideology implies that one terror group has the potential of either supporting or engaging in similar acts as witnessed by their counterparts. Hamm & Spaaij (2015), in their research, also found out that the group dynamics can exist in the form of the enablers. According to the authors, the enablers can have either a direct or an indirect impact, as witnessed in the case of the lone wolf terrorists. The direct means can happen in the form of unwitty individuals who help in the planning of the terrorist attacks. Indirectly, terrorism can be facilitated by individuals who inspire acts of terrorism.
In the context of the Al-Qaeda, the enablers were individuals such as Osama Bin Laden, who was the undisputed leader of the group until his death. Osama was a wealthy individual who financed the operations of Al-Qaeda. The group was heavily enabled with the sale of drugs such as cocaine in the Middle East region. The other theory that can explain the origin of terrorist activities in any part of the world is known as the train theory. Strain can be described as any negative stimulus that has adverse impacts on the life of an individual. The train or stressors ultimately lead to radicalization and the formation of the terrorist groups (Davis & Cragin, 2009). The strain theory can be used to explain the activities following the 9/11 attacks. Hafez & Mullins (2015) say, “The securitization of the Islamic identity since 9/11 further intensifies feelings of alienation” (p.963). The Muslims and their community members have largely been regarded as subjects of suspicion. As such, this has led to increased surveillance and humiliation on the part of the Muslim citizens living in foreign countries in Europe and America. As such, this has resulted in a strain on the part of the Muslims, which justifies their participation in terrorist activities.
Factors That Have Facilitated Radicalization and Terrorism
The formation of networks remains one of the factors that have facilitated radicalization and engagement in acts of terror. Hafez and Mullins (2015) say, “Individuals are likely to derive psychological and material benefits from the radical association” (p.964). The networks are based on activism and driven by the passion for changing the world. The authors assert that such networks can be used as paths by criminals to gain a renewed sense of personal meaning. Also, it could provide the restless youths with an opportunity to engage in a group activity, thereby empowering them and giving them a sense of purpose. The radicalization and recruitment require extensive networking characterized by interpersonal ties, trust, and solidarity (Kruglanski & Fishman, 2006).The individuals tasked with the recruitment processes largely rely on formerly created networks such as educational and faith-based ties. Terror organizations such as Al-Qaeda largely focused on the faith-based establishments that occur in Muslim countries. The networks have global implications, with Al-Qaeda having ties in different parts of the world especially in the Middle East and African countries such as Sudan and Somalia (Ibrahimi, 2017).
King and Taylor (2011) discuss the concept of relative deprivation as a factor that contributes to radicalization and terrorism. Many authors believe that relative deprivation should be at the center of the radicalization process. In explaining relative deprivation, the authors assert that the feeling of relative deprivation comes when individuals perceive an injustice by comparing what they have versus what their counterparts have. Al-Qaeda has long perceived the US as the root problem in the region. Primarily, the terrorist group is against the establishment of the apostate regimes, which they consider to be corrupt. In place of the regimes, they want to place the Islamic governments that best represent their interests. Therefore, the apostate and the US are the two major causes of relative deprivation for the Muslims in the Middle East region (Ibrahimi, 2017). Other than networks and relative deprivation, Hafez & Mullins (2015) view ideology as another fundamental factor that has contributed to the widespread radicalization and acts of terror across the world. The authors say, “Ideology can help forge a new rebellious identity by appealing to symbols, narratives, mythologies, and rituals that give meaning to acts of personal risk and sacrifice” (p.967).
The ideology factor, to a larger extent, applies to the case of Al-Qaeda. The main ideology guiding the terror group is the quest to remove all the foreign influences in the Muslim nations. Their goal is to establish a caliphate ruling that will only serve the interest of the Muslim people (Ibrahimi, 2017). The terrorists can also be impacted by the desire for excitement. Cottee & Hayward (2011) asserts that terrorism is a violent action that is characterized by acts of brutality and blood shed on innocent civilians. Some individuals have psychopathic attributes that provide them with a sense of excitement when they engage in mischievous and insensitive acts. Despite having a goal, some candidates for terrorist activities are simply attracted by the fun and flair that occurs in their respective groups. All these prove that no person was born a terrorist. On the flip side, everybody has the potential to become a terrorist. It only depends on whether they are placed in the right conditions that promote terrorism.
Conclusion
Over the last century, many terrorist groups have emerged claiming to act in the name of Islam. Also, the unstable conditions in countries such as Syria, Iraq, and Afghanistan have created an enabling environment for the radicalization of people and the establishment of groupings such as Al-Qaeda. Radicalization remains the most fundamental aspect that has contributed to the activities of Al-Qaeda across the world. The radicalization factors can be divided into the push, pull, and personal factors depending on how they affect an individual. The causal relationship between radicalization and extremism is well-documented in the literature. Based on the research, no one has a personality trait for terrorism. However, the reality is that individuals are exposed to external socio-political and economic conditions that spur their radicalization and eventual acts of extremism. Thus, given the required conditions, any person can become a terrorist, as explained by theoretical foundations such as strain and SMT.
References
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