Impact of Culture and Tradition in the Vietnam War and the Role of Nationalism

The Vietnam war of 1954 to 1975 was a conflict between the communist government of North Vietnam, commonly known as Viet Cong, against the South Vietnamese government together with the United States 1 . The United States joined forces with the government of South Vietnam in March 1965, with President Johnson ordering the American air force to bomb North Vietnam targets and destroy the Ho Chi Ming trail 2 . Although congress supported the war at first, criticism later grew among U.S. politicians, with American citizens rebuking America's actions in the war. The Vietnam war destroyed America's image and reputation to the outside world due to the atrocities subjected to Vietnamese civilians. According to most historians, the following factors led to the Vietnam war: The Cold War between America and the Soviet Union that facilitated Communism, the European imperialism in Vietnam, and the American containment policy to halt the spread of Communism 3 . Besides, traditional and cultural factors within Vietnam society promoted by Communism influenced America to enter the war. The United States was an anti-communist government; hence, they wanted to prevent the rise of Communism, which they believed was a totalitarian ideology. Therefore, this report will analyze the Vietnam war, the traditional and cultural factors that influence America in the war, and the role and significance of nationalism in the war's outcome. 

Literature Review 

The Vietnam war of 1945 to 1975 has been a topic of interest to most scholars and researchers. This report will analyze significant events of the Vietnam war using facts and evidence from various authors. Short suggests that the Vietnam war was facilitated by the French occupation and control of Vietnam 4 . In 1885, the French had already occupied the colonial empire of Vietnam, subjecting its citizens to authoritarian leadership 5 . France assimilated the Vietnamese, offering them French citizenship. French culture also clashed with the Vietnamese traditional cultures, leading to conflicts. Short suggests that the French had rigid colonial policies that defined their political and social culture; hence, Vietnam found it hard to adapt to the French administration 6 . This scenario resulted in hostilities between the French and Vietnamese political affiliations. However, during the 1950s, the Vietnamese held revolutions against the French to oppose their policies and demand independence. The First Indochina war between 1946 to 1954 involved the French against Viet Minh 7 . Noncommunist groups such as America and South Vietnam supported the French regime against Viet Minh. The war ended in 1954 after the French were defeated in Dien Bien Phu 8 , 9 . The Geneva agreement of 1954 divided the country into North and South Vietnam, promoting peace. However, the agreement was short-lived since conflicts between non-communist and communists' groups escalated. This saw the United States join forces with the government of South Vietnam in 1965; hence, facilitating the Vietnam war 10 . 

Harrison opines that the peasants and revolutionary movements in Vietnam escalated the war 11 . Many Vietnamese peasants joined the Viet Cong (communist south Vietnamese group) to form revolutionary movements against South Vietnam and the United States 12 . Vietnamese peasantry was a significant element in the Vietnamese culture. Initially, the Vietnamese peasantry supported French colonial administrations and a group of Landlords. The peasants grew rice, which was a stable food among Vietnamese. The French had initially installed a hamlet program that sourced rice from the peasant used for war supplies 13 , 14 . Therefore, the United States' involvement in the war was to halt Communism and prevent more peasants from joining the Viet Cong to form revolutionary movements. 

Khanh suggests that the Vietnamese communist movement was founded in 1925 by Ho Chi Minh 15 . The Vietnamese communist movement spearheaded Vietnam's nationalism by fighting against foreign adversaries within Vietnam territory, creating a dominant influence in Vietnam and shaping the Vietnamese political arena 16 . The Vietnamese communist movement continued to advocate for nationalism through Communism despite America's military offensive to halt communist ideologies. The North Vietnamese government had pledged to stay with its power position of advocating for Communism. Vietnam focused on nationalism as an essential tenet to transform its politics and the welfare of its citizens. America's involvement in the Vietnam war reflects on materialism and greed. Despite the bombings and atrocities subjected to Vietnamese, America was determined to suppress Communism through its containment policy. This approach led to criticism against America's actions, with most Americans and significant political figures calling it unethical. 

Traditional and Cultural Factors 

Traditions and cultures are significant elements that define the social way of life of a group. The Vietnamese shared a specific culture and tradition, which made them unique to foreign adversaries such as France and the United States. However, their culture and traditions exhibited were slightly different based on their ideas and geography. Cultural and traditional differences among the Vietnamese were based on the region where they lived. Historians suggest that most Asian countries shared a similar sociopolitical ideology that might have facilitated America's involvement in the war. The sociopolitical ideology was about Communism since one Asian country could influence others into adopting Communism 17 . The United States viewed this culture as a threat to its containment policies; hence, it supported south Vietnam to suppress Communism. Mansoor suggests that culture is a vital element in military affairs since it supports military effectiveness 18 . From this statement, it is evident that the communist culture in Vietnam was a significant issue for the United States, allowing it to support South Vietnam in the war against Viet Cong, which advocated for Communism. 

Culture is vital since it indicates the difference in beliefs and ideas of a particular group against adversaries 19 . North Vietnam and the Viet Cong understood its cultures and were eager to protect it from foreign adversaries like America. Ho Chih Minh believed that the Vietnamese should live under the culture of Communism to transform its political arena and society 20 . On the other hand, south Vietnam believed in a non-communist culture to transform society. Therefore, the cultural differences between the south and the north attracted America to join the war. However, Ho Chih Minh was supported by the Viet Cong, a communist group advocating for Communism in the south 21 . America realized that they had to flush out Viet Cong guerrillas to halt Communism. Viet Cong guerrillas used communist terrorism, a refined political weapon, to combat foreign adversaries 22 . They also adopted selective terrorism, which involved murdering corrupted village officials to enhance social tension within society 23 . 

The population of Vietnam mainly consisted of peasants, who relied on farming rice and other crops. Farming was a primary socioeconomic culture for peasants, allowing them to support their families. Peasant revolutions began when the French colonized Vietnam. France introduced the hamlet program that forced the peasants to produce rice for military supplies 24 . Additionally, France's administration and culture were different from the Vietnamese social way of life, facilitating revolutions that led to war. The First Vietnam War of 1946 to 1954 involved French troops and Ho rag-tag guerrillas 25 . Ho rag-tag guerrillas fought under Viet Minh, and they were against French occupation and their administrative policies. Hence, the French's loss in 1954 provided an opportunity for America to support the President of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, to prevent the rise of Communism in Southeast Asia 26 . 

South Vietnamese peasantry was a major cultural and traditional factor in the American war in Vietnam. The south Vietnamese peasantry supported peasant revolutions and military and political movements to advocate for Communism 27 . The Vietnamese troops who fought against American troops mainly consisted of peasants. Similarly, the troops who fought in Franco-Vietnam from 1946 to 1954 were primarily peasants from rural areas 28 . They were against foreign occupation, and they wanted to practice their cultures effectively without interference. They aspired to restore the ancient peasantry tradition that faced destruction due to foreign powers' influence. Additionally, the South Vietnamese peasantry wanted to restore their agricultural society that was being damaged due to the influx of foreign invaders. Vietnamese Communism and its familiarity with the rural world were reflected in its military 29 , 30 . Vietnamese culture was expressed as a rural world where most things were natural. They felt that the United States and France were invading their personal space and destroying their cultures; hence, they had to rebel against them. Therefore, the peasant tradition and Vietnamese Communism shared similar ideas and principles to flush out foreign troops from Vietnam territory. 

The Geneva agreement of 1954 divided Vietnam into North and South Vietnam 31 . North and South Vietnam developed contrasting traditions and cultures that influenced the American war. North Vietnam was initially known as Tonkin, while South Vietnam was known as Cochinchina 32 . Both North and south Vietnam had different historical profiles, and they utilized Communism in striking ways. This facilitated the war allowing the United States to support South Vietnam. North Vietnam was known for its radical reputation in Communism 33 . Hence, America viewed it as an enemy of the containment policy. North Vietnam had an old national tradition, while South Vietnam was created after being colonized by northern Vietnamese in the early 18th century 34 . Ho Chi Minh wanted the whole of Vietnam to adopt Communism since North Vietnam was considered the nation's heart. Viet Cong guerrillas in the south who were Minh's allies attempted to persuade the majority of peasants to adopt Communism; at the same time, they faced criticism from Diem's government and America's military offensive 35 . North Vietnam's culture was nearly similar to Chinese culture, while south Vietnam had a blend of different cultures with most people practicing agriculture. South Vietnam exhibited a modernized and well-developed economy than North Vietnam. North Vietnam was a radical communist government, while south Vietnam practiced socialist Communism to enhance development 36 . North and South Vietnam applied Communism in contrasting ways that created communication problems between them, leading to conflicts. South Vietnam had social classes defining the wealthy and poor in society, while north Vietnam lacked social classes. Therefore, these traditional and cultural differences enhanced conflicts and hostility between North and South Vietnam; thus, influencing the American war. 

Vietnamese Nationalism 

Nationalism refers to an ideology that seeks to promote the interests of a nation. Vietnamese nationalism has been a fascinating topic for most historians since it is challenging to comprehend. Historians mostly argue whether key Vietnamese figures like Ho Chin Ming were also nationalists. Ho Chi Minh is known as the founder of the Vietnamese Communist Movement in 1925 37 . Vietnamese nationalism reflects on the ideas that people had to improve to support the nation's interest. Although North and South Vietnam had divided ideologies concerning their nation's interest, nationalism still played a crucial role in shaping Vietnam's political arena. Ho Chi Minh and other key Vietnamese leaders utilized the nationalism aspect to oppose foreign adversaries such as America and France by prioritizing Vietnam's interest. Vietnam combined nationalism and Communism to create a rigid ideology that helped to oppose American and French ideologies. Vietnam had anti-communist nationalists like Ngo Dinh Diem, who had contradictory views to communist leaders like Ho Chi Minh 38 . 

Nationalist Groups in Vietnam 

Vietnam was known for the policy of Communism, with North Vietnam considered a radical communist nation. However, Vietnam portrayed the idea of nationalism since most people wanted the interests of the nation to be given a priority. Firstly, Vietnamese peasants were considered nationalists, although they gave little significance to nationalism. Vietnamese peasants were more patriotic since they wanted to preserve their cultures and traditions 39 . Vietnamese also portrayed patriotism since they strongly opposed foreign policies. South Vietnamese peasantry formed revolutions and political movements that opposed foreign rule. Vietnamese troops mainly consisted of peasants who were eager to preserve national interest and practice their cultures without interference. Vietnamese peasants were at first illiterate about nationalism. However, urban-based nationalists played a functional role in persuading peasants to accept nationalism to preserve culture and the nation's interest 40 . 

Secondly, Vietnam had various nationalists and political groups that advocated for Vietnamese nationalism. Nationalist and political groups were mainly in Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam. The nationalist and political groups were also connected with anti-communist governments in Saigon, South Vietnam. The key figure of the anti-communist government was Ngo Dinh Diem and Nguyen Van Thieu 41 . Ngo Dinh Diem had a close relationship with the United States because of his efforts to suppress the spread of Communism. Anti-communist government groups were Catholics, contrary to Vietnam's overwhelming Buddhist community. Diem had trust issues with other anti-communist members due to the fear of being defeated by communist North Vietnam. The trust problems among the anti-communist members made it possible for peasants to join Viet Cong in advocating Communism. 

Thirdly, Vietnam had particular religious sects that recommended the need for nationalism to improve Vietnam's society. These religious sects were the Hoa Hao and Cao Dai, located in Mekong Delta 42 . Hoa Hao and Cao Dai had a considerable mass base in society and were considered highly religious 43 . This helped to convince others that Vietnam needed change to improve the welfare of ordinary peasants. Hoa Hao and Cao Dai were also considered patriotic based on their reputation of upholding traditional, cultural, and religious principles. They were considered not genuinely nationalist because they were highly religious. Additionally, they were Vietnam's minority groups and could not engage in political activities. Hoa Hao and Cao Dai preferred decentralized governments since they feared being controlled by people instead of their faiths 44 . Even though they advocated for nationalism, Hoa Hao chose to have a de facto government that would allow people to act under moral principles. 

Fourthly, the communist party led by Ho Chi Minh was also believed to support nationalism based on its principles. The communist party tried to hide activities and statements that would make them appear to support nationalism. Communist leaders like Ho Chi Minh were staunch followers of the doctrine of Karl Max 45 . Minh never wanted to appear as nationalist since it would look offensive on Marxist doctrine 46 . However, statements such as patriotism, the nation being a political unit, and the nation uniting the people were typical of communist slogans, justifying their support for nationalism. The national communist party became a nationalist movement after the Second World War. This marked the synthesis of Communism with nationalism in opposing foreign adversaries. 

The Role and Significance of Nationalism in the Outcome of Vietnam War 

At first, the spirit of nationalism helped the Vietnamese to defeat the French. The Franco-Vietnam war between 1946 to 1954 was a nationalist struggle led by Communists against the French 47 . The peasants were motivated to preserve their culture of peasantry and agriculture, which the French were disrupting. Since Vietnamese peasants were patriotic, they supported the Communist groups in defeating the French. When America entered the war in 1965, they supported Ngo Dinh Diem since he was against Communism 48 . However, North Vietnam, through Ho Chi Minh, had convinced ordinary Vietnamese peasants to support nationalism and Communism 49 . Viet Cong in the south and ordinary peasants were motivated by nationalism and Communism to oppose America. They utilized guerilla tactics to combat American troops. Even though America launched a heavy military offensive that destroyed property and led to casualties, the communist moved never lost their power position but instead continued with the struggle. 

Nationalism acted as a source of motivation to capitalist groups and peasants, allowing them to resist American policies. Ho Chi Minh was quoted saying that fighting was inevitable and America would surrender at last 50 . This indicated their determination to support Vietnam's interest and preserve their cultures and tradition. Also, the spirit of nationalism enabled Communists to lead a national-liberation struggle against the South Vietnamese government. Ho Chi Minh aimed to destroy the South Vietnamese government since the Communist Movement believed it was a threat to Vietnam 51 . The Communist Movement claimed that foreign powers formed the South Vietnamese government; hence, it did not advocate for Communism. The spirit of nationalism helped the communist movement drive out foreign powers supporting the South Vietnamese government. This allowed them to reunite Vietnam under a communist government that promoted equality in society. Therefore, the National Communist Party and the North Vietnam government achieved their goals courtesy of nationalism. 

The National Communist party managed to remove foreign power's influence in Vietnam; hence, uniting the nation under Communism. However, the party has failed to achieve developments promised to the Vietnamese since Vietnam is among the poorest nations in East Asia. The communist party has failed to solve economic and social problems affecting the Vietnamese. This makes their approach of destroying South Vietnam absurd because south Vietnam had a stable economy compared to the radical communist North Vietnam. This further indicates that capitalism was an effective policy to enhance development than Communism. 

The Vietnam war demonstrated the struggle for power between North and South Vietnam, with America entering the war to halt Communism. North and South Vietnam had different ideas concerning Communism. Also, the difference in traditions and cultural aspects facilitated the American war. Asian countries had a culture of influencing each other to adopt Communism; hence, America had to intervene to suppress communist movements. Vietnamese peasants wanted to preserve peasantry and the rural culture. Vietnamese peasants were rice farmers, and they criticized the French's approach of forcing them to produce rice for military supply. North Vietnam practiced radical Communism compared to South Vietnam. However, Vietnamese nationalism enabled the Communist Party and the Vietnamese peasants to defeat the French and the Americans. Nationalism was synthesized with Communism to create a national liberation struggle that destroyed the South Vietnamese government to unite the nation. Key nationalist groups in Vietnam were the peasants, anti-communists, religious sects (i.e., Hoa Hao and Cao Dai), and the National Communist party led by Ho Chi Minh. Overall, nationalism and Communism played a functional role to unite North and South Vietnam under one communist nation to promote peace and prosperity for the Vietnamese. 

Bibliography 

Chesneaux, Jean, and Mark Tinker. "The Historical Background of Vietnamese Communism." Government and Opposition (1969): 118-135. 

Coleman, Walter, and Robinson Michael. “U.S. Battling Peasant Revolt in Vietnam.” (1965). Retrieved from https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1965/2/19/us-battling-peasant-revolt-in-vietnam/ Accessed on April 30, 2021. 

Harrison, Benjamin T. "THE VIETNAM WAR—A DECADE LATER: IMPACT ON AMERICAN VALUES." Peace Research (1984): 30-37. 

Khanh, Huynh Kim. "The Vietnamese Communist Movement Revisited." Southeast Asian Affairs (1976): 445-466. 

Mansoor, Peter R. "The softer side of war: Exploring the influence of culture on military doctrine." Foreign Affairs (2011): 164-171. 

Nguyen, Phi-Vân. "A Secular State for a Religious Nation: The Republic of Vietnam and Religious Nationalism, 1946–1963." The Journal of Asian Studies 77, no. 3 (2018): 741-771. 

Short, Anthony. The origins of the Vietnam War. Routledge, 2014. 

Stewart, Geoffrey C. "Book Reviews--Southeast Asia: Vietnam at War; Vietnam's Southern Revolution: From Peasant Insurrection to Total War; A Vietnam War Reader: A Documentary History from American and Vietnamese Perspectives." The Journal of Asian Studies 75, no. 3 (08, 2016): 873-877, https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/book-reviews-southeast-asia-vietnam-at-war/docview/1827834445/se-2?accountid=45049 (accessed April 30, 2021). 

1 Anthony, Short. The origins of the Vietnam War. Routledge, 2014. 

2 Ibid. 

3 Ibid. 

4 Anthony, Short. The origins of the Vietnam War. Routledge, 2014. 

5 ibid 

6 ibid 

7 Geoffrey C Stewart. "Book Reviews--Southeast Asia: Vietnam at War; Vietnam's Southern Revolution: From Peasant Insurrection to Total War; A Vietnam War Reader: A Documentary History from American and Vietnamese Perspectives." 

8 ibid 

9 Huynh Kim Khanh. "The Vietnamese Communist Movement Revisited." Southeast Asian Affairs (1976): 445-466. 

10 ibid 

11 Benjamin T Harrison. "THE VIETNAM WAR—A DECADE LATER: IMPACT ON AMERICAN VALUES." Peace Research (1984): 30-37. 

12 Ibid. 

13 Jean, Chesneaux and Mark Tinker. "The Historical Background of Vietnamese Communism." Government and Opposition (1969): 118-135. 

14 Walter, Coleman and Michael Robinson. “U.S. Battling Peasant Revolt in Vietnam.” (1965). Retrieved from https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1965/2/19/us-battling-peasant-revolt-in-vietnam/ Accessed on April 30, 2021. 

15 Huynh Kim Khanh. "The Vietnamese Communist Movement Revisited." Southeast Asian Affairs (1976): 445-466. 

16 ibid 

17 Walter, Coleman and Michael Robinson. “U.S. Battling Peasant Revolt in Vietnam.” (1965). Retrieved from https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1965/2/19/us-battling-peasant-revolt-in-vietnam/ Accessed on April 30, 2021. 

18 Peter R Mansoor. "The softer side of war: Exploring the influence of culture on military doctrine." Foreign Affairs (2011): 164-171. 

19 ibid 

20 Huynh, Kim Khanh. "The Vietnamese Communist Movement Revisited." Southeast Asian Affairs (1976): 445-466. 

21 Jean, Chesneaux and Tinker Mark. "The Historical Background of Vietnamese Communism." Government and Opposition (1969): 118-135. 

22 Walter, Coleman and Michael Robinson. “U.S. Battling Peasant Revolt in Vietnam.” (1965). Retrieved from https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1965/2/19/us-battling-peasant-revolt-in-vietnam/ Accessed on April 30, 2021. 

23 ibid 

24 ibid 

25 Huynh, Kim Khanh. "The Vietnamese Communist Movement Revisited." Southeast Asian Affairs (1976): 445-466. 

26 ibid 

27 Walter, Coleman and Michael Robinson. “U.S. Battling Peasant Revolt in Vietnam.” (1965). Retrieved from https://www.thecrimson.com/article/1965/2/19/us-battling-peasant-revolt-in-vietnam/ Accessed on April 30, 2021. 

28 Jean, Chesneaux and Tinker Mark. "The Historical Background of Vietnamese Communism." Government and Opposition (1969): 118-135. 

29 ibid 

30 Geoffrey, C Stewart. "Book Reviews--Southeast Asia: Vietnam at War; Vietnam's Southern Revolution: From Peasant Insurrection to Total War; A Vietnam War Reader: A Documentary History from American and Vietnamese Perspectives." 

31 ibid 

32 Jean, Chesneaux and Tinker Mark. "The Historical Background of Vietnamese Communism." Government and Opposition (1969): 118-135. 

33 Ibid 

34 Anthony, Short. The origins of the Vietnam War. Routledge, 2014. 

35 Geoffrey C, Stewart. "Book Reviews--Southeast Asia: Vietnam at War; Vietnam's Southern Revolution: From Peasant Insurrection to Total War; A Vietnam War Reader: A Documentary History from American and Vietnamese Perspectives." 

36 Anthony, Short. The origins of the Vietnam War. Routledge, 2014. 

37 ibid 

38 ibid 

39 Geoffrey C, Stewart. "Book Reviews--Southeast Asia: Vietnam at War; Vietnam's Southern Revolution: From Peasant Insurrection to Total War; A Vietnam War Reader: A Documentary History from American and Vietnamese Perspectives." 

40 ibid 

41 Jean, Chesneaux and Tinker Mark. "The Historical Background of Vietnamese Communism." Government and Opposition (1969): 118-135. 

42 Phi-Vân, Nguyen. "A Secular State for a Religious Nation: The Republic of Vietnam and Religious Nationalism, 1946–1963." The Journal of Asian Studies 77, no. 3 (2018): 741-771. 

43 ibid 

44 ibid 

45 Jean, Chesneaux, and Tinker Mark. "The Historical Background of Vietnamese Communism." Government and Opposition (1969): 118-135. 

46 ibid 

47 Anthony, Short. The origins of the Vietnam War. Routledge, 2014. 

48 ibid 

49 Geoffrey C, Stewart. "Book Reviews--Southeast Asia: Vietnam at War; Vietnam's Southern Revolution: From Peasant Insurrection to Total War; A Vietnam War Reader: A Documentary History from American and Vietnamese Perspectives." 

50 Jean, Chesneaux and Tinker Mark. "The Historical Background of Vietnamese Communism." Government and Opposition (1969): 118-135. 

51 ibid