Abstract
Terrorism comes in many forms and it supports various types of ideas. There is no single definition of terrorism since it encompasses a range of activities all designed to intimidate and instill fear, but generally, it is a tactic of enforcing ideas on someone and disorienting them. Terrorism can be domestic or international and it takes various forms, including being state-sponsored, individual, and religious and left wing political alignment. In the course of American history, different types of terrorism have emerged, and one of the most notable cases is the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), which is a racial terrorist organization whose aims were to distort the social and political context of the United States through violence and fear to achieve racial segregation and White supremacy. The KKK first appeared in the 19 th century in resistance to the Republican Party’s Reconstruction-era policies. The organization emerged in three significant waves, with the same tactics and goals. Their violence led to a great deal of discord in the US and various attempts by the government including the third enforcement to put a halt to their existence. However, it will be seen that traces of the KKK still exists in the US today, shedding light on the importance of finding effective means of counterterrorism and the importance of international collaboration.
Introduction
Literature reports that terrorism is as old as humanity and that it has been one of the integral parts of human evolution (Sauter & Carafan, 2005). The cited author suggests that terrorism has been given different labels by the different cultural perspectives throughout the world. There is no single definition of terrorism since the word is among the most defined around the world—it has been defined more than 109 times globally (Hariharan, 2004). The many definitions of the term also suggest that it is one of the most misunderstood terms. However, despite the numerous definitions accorded to the term, one of them stands out for the purpose of this essay. Specifically, terrorism can be defined as a type of violence, in a given setting, against civilian noncombatants aimed at creating fear and terror to fulfill a political motive or goal. (Combs, 2012) . Terrorism can be state-sponsored, or dissent in which terrorist groups have rebelled against their government, it could be right or left wing where groups are rooted in political ideologies and it could be religious where groups are extremely religiously motivated and finally criminal in which terrorists acts are used to aid in gaining profit. While the definitions and dimensions of terrorism could vary around the world, they have common elements defining them. For example, in most cases, the victims of the activities are always innocent and they do not occur from the battlefields. Terrorism in the United States has many origins. There are homegrown incidents such as the 1995 Oklahoma City Bombing and the 1996 Atlanta Olympics bombing, both in which anti-government extremists used violence to promote their course. The nation has also experienced external terrorism such as 9/11, which is the deadliest act in the U.S. history.
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The focus of this paper is on internal terrorism experienced by the US in the context of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) by examining the its emergence, activities and goals. The essay further analyzes the degree of influence of the KKK on society and government, and the extent of its success. The essay finally explores traces of KKK today and concludes by the importance of counterterrorism.
The Origins of the KKK, its Phase of Existence, and its Ideological Standpoint
The KKK and its emergence are attributed to the onset of the reconstruction period in the history of the US. The reconstruction era was an attempt to transform the eleven ex-Confederate states from 1863 to 1877 during which the Republican state governments in the South were overthrown (Kathleen, 2008). Related studies suggest that the onset of the period threatened the White supremacy in the country (Kathleen, 2008). Consequently, the occurrence of this movement led to the birth of the KKK in 1866 as a political movement by White extremists with the objective of sustaining White supremacy in the United States.
The organization is composed of three major movements that occurred in the country over a period of years in starting from the 19 th century to present. While initially, radical reactionary surrounded the movement, later iterations to it were more inclined towards White supremacy and anti-immigration policies. The movement used violence in an attempt to promote its mission. The application of force among the group in the course of championing its agenda could be compared to terrorism since such forceful engagements resulted in the loss of many lives. (Kathleen, 2008). The purpose of KKK was to bring ‘purification’ into the American society and make it more ‘authentic.’ The focus of this initiative has always been extreme enough to influence people to a certain extent, while creating strong opposition to the government and society as well as the Northern Movement.
The KKK extended to most of the states in the South in which it acted as a means of refusing the politcal redevelopments that the North had enaged in attain political equality in the country. Therefore, the members of the group waged secrete wars on African American and White leaders of the Republican party. Even though Congress intervened the threat of the group to the security of the public, the group managed to champion for its primary mission—the reinstatement of White Supremacy—by ensuring it attained victories for Democrat leaders in the legislatires of the different Southern States during the 1870s (Combs, 2012). Before Congress would pass the Ku Klux Act of 1871 and the Force Act of 1870, the cited author sugegsts that the grand wizard of the group, Nathan Bedford Forrest, had ordered the disbandement of the group on ground that it perpetrated excessive force on the populace. However, since the regional branches of the group did not die out, Congress was forced into enacting the identfied Acts that would be critical in combating the group and its effects on civilians.
Membership of the KKK is kept a secret for exclusivity and safety purposes of the members in addition to ensuring that the purity and secrecy of the organization is sustained to a point where all of the objectives of the movement would be fulfilled. It is critical noting that the organization has existed in two major waves. The first Klan was formed in 1865 and stayed in place until 1871. It attempted to restore and keep the White supremacy in the US to ensure that not many immigrants take over the country during the reconstruction period. After some resistance from the society, its members went underground for safety, came back again in 1915, and stayed until 1944. After that, it took only two years for the movement to surface again in 1946. Until now, the world has not been able to overcome the intensity of the movement, and the third Klan still holds its strength in the US, disturbing the overall peace across the country and specifically focusing on some significant states.
When it first emerged in the South during the 19 th century, everything remained undisclosed, and the members were hesitant to come out publicly about their ideas. However, the second wave of the movement was more violent and came back with an extreme point of view. It was during this second wave of the KKK that the members of the movement started wearing specific costumes, robes, masks and hats, among other types of attires that would distinguish them from the rest of the populace and spelling out their ideologies (Kathleen, 2008). Another purpose of these practices was to show their intensity and seem terrifying to others while some used these to hide and stay in the shadows.
The First Klan: 1865 to 1871
The First Klan emerged soon after the Civil War in the period of Southern Reconstruction. It was originally founded as a social club for Confederate veterans in Pulaski, Tennessee, in 1866 (Bryant, 2012). It became a vehicle for White Southern underground resistance to the Republican Party’s policies, which aimed establishing political and economic equality for the blacks. It drew members who sought to restore White Supremacy to the South through intimidation and violence aimed at the newly enfranchised Black freedom (Combs, 2012). The Klan reached its peak between 1868 and 1870, with its members dressing in white robes and sheets to intimidate to freedmen and to avoid being recognized. It has been mentioned that the violence of this group caused its founders to order it to disband and for the US congress to pass the KKK Act in 1871, which imposed heavy penalties on this terrorist organization.
The incidents or organized crime staged by the group began in March of 1868 and they were marked by the murder of George Ashburn who was a Republican organizer in Columbus, Georgia (Park, 2017). In the few months that followed the incidence, KKK inspired further violence that spread through the Black Belt of Georgia towards the northwestern zone of the same state. A significant part of the actions of the KKK was geared at intimidation directed at the White supporters and Black voters of the Republican Party. The members of the group would parade on horsebacks during the night, clad in outlandish attires that would be a source of intimidation for some of the targeted members of the society through their acts of violence (Kathleen , 2008). During 1968, the actions of the group grew more violent and they ranged from killings to whippings of African American women who were considered to equal the assassinations of Republican leaders. While it is not possible for one to isolate local violence from vigilante groups in the South from political violence that the KKK organized, it is easy to identify that violence staged against the Blacks in the region worsened during the same year. For instance, the Freedman’s Bureau reported that the group had been involved in the murder of some 336 people and numerous cases of assault with the intention to kill during the same year ((LeDuff, 2015).
The group’s political terrorism worked effectively. For example, it resulted in the victories of Rufus Bullock on a Republican ticket to the Senate in 1868 and caused Horatio Seymour to be one the lead in the care for Presidency in the same year (Marcetic, 2018). However, in some of the counties, a reverse trend was experienced. For instance, in Oglethorpe, only 116 voters cast their votes in favor of the Republican Party candidate when the group surrounded the polls as opposed to 1144 who had done so without this form of political intimidation (Bryant, 2012). Alongside these forms of violence, it is reported that the KKK also enforced their violence to the social sphere in which schools and churches of the Blacks were burned, teachers killed, and other groups of individuals were killed and tortured.
This Klan disappeared in the following years, mostly because its goal of restoring White Supremacy has been achieved and the need for such organization was no longer evident. Although there is no clear evidence on how many people were supporting the Klan in the first phase of its existence and how it ended in Georgia, the movement certainly left some strong influence on the domestic politics due to its intense strategies. Until fading away in 1871, the movement was still involved in acts of extreme violence and racism, which affected many lives in general, and the social and political structure of the communities as well. Additionally, there were some subgroups formed off the Klan, and these smaller groups continued with the violence and disturbance (Bryant, 2012).
Second Klan: from 1924 to 1925
Although initially, the number of its members was unknown since it was still in its initial stages, the second time it emerged, around three to six million people were its members and supported the idea of ‘purification’ (Marcetic, 2018). In this second era, as the cited literature indicates, the highest number of members associated with the movement was from 1924-1925. The film called The Birth of a Nation inspired the Second Klan for political marketing and promotion inspired the Second Klan. The group considered that the film was appropriate for their agenda for the fact that it depicted the need for one to fight for the liberation of others. A popular perspective of the film was the fact that sitting and watching events unfold would not result in the improvement of the state of affairs. Instead, according to the movie, fighting for the rights of individuals was a divine call on anyone who sensed injustices in the society (Kathleen, 2008). During this phase of their occurrence, the group added hatred of Roman Catholics, Jews, foreigners, and organized labor to its hostility towards blacks (Combs, 2012).
The group had been rising steadily during their reoccurrence. However, it took the Great Depression of the 1930’s that hit the world to drop the membership rate of the organization which affected their organizational activities and overall strength as well causing the second wave come to an end in 1944. The hope of everyone was that the movement would never resurface. Nevertheless, it only took two years for the movement to regain its power.
Later Klans: from the 1950s to Present
In the 1960’s, there were instances of violence, including shootings, whippings, and even bombing that the Klan orchestrated. After the arrest of some main people connected to them, the movement became weaker which resulted in a more segmented supremacist organization. While some smaller groups thought that it is a good strategy to join hands for the movement, others kept on operating on their own in the 21 st century In the 21 st century, although the ideology of the Klan is as straightforward and racist as it was before, they have adopted some additional ways of promoting their philosophies and beliefs. The political marketing of the Klan has become more public and digital, and they use the social media to promote their point of view. Additionally, it is common for the members to leave flyers on cars and leave in mailboxes of people in the White neighborhoods of many states (LeDuff, 2015). Recently, many acts of violence have been seen in several states including South Carolina when the member protested against the removal of a Confederate flag from the State House. Similar activities were seen in California in 2016 and Charlottesville, Virginia in 2017 as well (Park, 2017). The incidences suggest that even though the group does not have as much power as it used to hold during the first and second phases of its occurrence, it is still capable of hurting the wellbeing of the public.
Using women for the movement was another major chunk of the organization, which could not be ignored. In an early 20 th century, women participation was widely encouraged, and these female members took part in cross lighting, rallies, boycotts, and parades as well as other activities. Some of the main duties given to these female members included discouraging the consumption of liquor among women and children and promoting prohibition in other areas. However, it was ironical that that a sexual scandal emerged under the leadership of the Klan. Due to this scandal, the overall membership of the Klan dropped which affected its overall popularity because the women influenced the rest of the membership to withdrawn from the group (Kathleen , 2008).
After the third wave, the organization did not remain the one unified group it once was and got broken down into smaller groups. Right now, multiple smaller groups and organizations are working towards the same agenda and spreading terror across the states. In 2017, the total number of smaller groups working towards the same agenda as KKK were said to be around 29 at least which there are some even smaller groups that almost work underground like a cult and not easy to identify (McAndrew, 2017).
Tactics, Activities, and Impact on Domestic Politics
The most significant of the tactics that the KKK has been using throughout its history is political intimidation. It is described that the first act of terrorism initiated by Klan was in 1868 when they murdered George Ashburn who was a Republican organizer. Since it all happened in Columbus, Georgia, the terror and related activities spread across the state, and it did not take long for the Klan to be able to intimidate black voters and any white voters voting for the Republicans (Marcetic, 2018).
After their first shot at a Republican leader, the KKK started the practice of threatening Republican leaders dressed in costumes on horsebacks in a parade. By then, it was clear that the Klan was using violence and intimidation as their primary tactic to threaten people and pull them on their side or at least push them away from the other one which seemed to be working to some extent. In 1868, these acts of violence became even more alarming when the attacks became obvious on the black people including whipping of black women. In 1868, 11 months of the year witnessed 336 cases of violence and assault including intentions to kill on freedmen, and the Freedmen's Bureau reported these cases.
This tactic of political terrorism and organized acts under the policy were proved effective in manipulating domestic politics as in April 1868, the presidential candidate received 1144 votes in the country that dropped to 116 by November. In some instances, these members of the Klan made efforts to control the social behaviors and activities of the freedmen as well. Some of the tactics the Klan used to pursue that was burning up churches, attacking and beating up black people or even killing them. Additionally, they attacked teachers and schools with the same purpose, but that strategy did not work out as planned (Bryant, 2012)
Some of the things that proved to be the reason for the organization to fade away were the Ku Klux Klan Act passed in that year by Congress. The primary focus of the act was around the idea that the government acts against the organization and takes action against their fierce activities and agendas. Although the law was not rigorously enforced, an order of arrest for many members of the Klan was issued which provoked them. Nevertheless, the members facing the arrest threats had much support from other members and followers in the South, which turned it into a huge challenge to support the actions (PBS, 2017) .
In 1920, the activism of the Klan reached its highest point when the total membership of the Klan went all the way up to four million on a national level. Due to the higher number of membership, the fraternity earned revenue and profits, which helped it, improve the form of violent activities it was organizing across the nation. They spent all this money in costumes, publications, spreading out violent literature and extreme rituals like burning up the Cross and Swastika as a sign of disrespect to others who are not members. Later on, they made the burning cross their organizational sign and used to hold it in most of their parades.
Previously, the first drive of the Klan mainly acted against the black people and was racist mostly by color. However, although the new ones argued to be less violent, they proved to be more disrespectful towards people of other races and religions including the Roman Catholics. In 1928, a Catholic named Alfred E. Smith was nominated for the Democratic presidential elections, which spread a wave of growth and excitement in the group. It proved that the primary purpose of the organization is not only to hold their grudges against the people of color or a certain religion, but they also want to gain political influence as well so that their acts of supremacy can be supported and spread on a wider scale.
All these tactics and well-organized activities of the Klan show that how there is much loyalty in the group and the manner in which these people support each other in everything they do. With their white supremacist thoughts, the members aim to restore the American as a white and Christian nation as they think that this is something written by God and has to happen. In the 20 th century, a new form of KKK was born which called itself to be the less violent version of the same group, but their rules were stricter than the conventional fraternity was. To enter the new KKK, members have to be native-born white Americans, and no one outside of the group is allowed to enter. Depending on the exclusivity of the organization, some believe that he is campaigning and activities of this new group are, in no way, different from the previous one.
Although in a global context, KKK might be any other terrorist organization like many other, in the context of the US, it had a significant influence on the overall political causing disturbance, legal actions and arrests, civil background in terms of security and social upheaval in the form of violence in the country. In addition, attempts to develop the same ideology have taken place in Canada, Australia, Brazil, and Germany as well. In the US, the first wave was intense as the subsequent one was, and there was some resistance felt in the country. However, the second time this movement emerged, it came back with a strong stance. While a significant number of Klan members were also playing a role in the political structure of the country which was even more alarming because their agendas were violent and vicious.
When Donald Trump became the president of the US, there was much manipulation witnessed from the Klan as the group supported Trump. Additionally, there was much hatred expressed by the white supremacists, which stirred up the debate of who should win the elections. After Trump became the president of the United States, he assigned Steve Bannon as the senior counselor to the White House that faced much criticism from the people and even Trump voters because he used to be the head of a white supremacist website called Briebart.com.
By the end of 2017, the total number of chapters opened in the US regarding KKK grew to 72-190 that became harder for the government to control. In this way, it became easier for these people to penetrate into the peaceful social structure across states, affecting the overall harmony, and distort the situations. Just like the case of South Carolina and Charlottesville when the situations started out to be pretty small and peaceful but later on, it was not easy for the lawmakers to control the entire parade. On the other hand, it sent out negative vibes to the world that a country advocating humanity and equal right for everyone is not able to deal with the extreme level of discrimination that started years ago in the form of a cult.
Combating the KKK
To fight the terrorist activities and put a halt to the ultimate intentions of the organization, the third enforcement act was put in place in 1871. The act gave the president the power to combat KKK and any other organization that has similar intentions. Passed by 42 nd US Congress on April 1871, the purpose of the enforcement was to get rid of the violent attacks of these terrorists and the rights of African Americans are not affected by the racism. Because of the enforcement, racial threats were given to the people trying to enforce the law.
Concerning the protection of citizens against the racism and violence, there have been instances when enough measures were not taken which led to the weakening of the battle against racism and KKK. For instance, on 3 November 1979, there was a rally that the Workers Viewpoint Organization (WVO) organized, which was ben led by some Klan members. Although WVO did not have any instance of violence and use of power in the past, the entire situation was underestimated. Eventually, the violence and disturbance the rally created could not be avoided because law enforcement was not well informed and prepared.
That ugly reality holds today as well when in 2017, Klan marchers came out on the streets heavily armed compared to what they were doing back in the 19 th century (Marcetic, 2018) . Additionally, the US Department of Homeland Security withdrew $400,000 from Chicago-based Life after Hate which was a group fighting against the white racism. Some criticized Donald Trump a lot since he is the one who did it after coming into power and the group was getting funding in Obama administration. Hence, there is still a lot more to do in the US regarding combating the violent and racist activities.
Conclusion
KKK is a terrorist organization operating in the US-based on social and racial discrimination. The existence of the organization in the nation has occurred through three major waves of ideology and movement. The first one started in the mid-19 th century. At that point, the focus of the organization was to make America pure and fight against the people of color. It was disturbing since the group was using violence and hatred to support its idea and rallies, parades, abuse, fights, whipping and even murders were their significant practices. Although the drive died out due to some reasons, the second wave in the early 20thc century was stronger than ever. At that point, the membership of the organization also rose to a dramatic extent.
The primary goal of the organization is to restore the white supremacy in the country and ensure that they stay on top of each other. Other than African Americans, the group was fighting against people of other races and religions including Christian, Muslims, and Jews as well. In the second wave, the membership of the group went rapidly up which was even more alarming. By the time, the domestic politics of the US was getting affected by the group, and people were not very happy the negative vibes. Right now, KKK is not in a single unified form but works in smaller groups, fully armed. Regarding battling the racism and the violent activities of the group, but there is still much space to improve regarding financial, legislative, social, and strategic efforts to overcome these racist tendencies on a larger scale.
References
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