For this paper, the Stroop test was undertaken to determine the different levels of interferences that can occur in accomplishing a task. The cognitive part of the brain has been accustomed to the various meanings associated with words. Hence, when the brain is required to process the color of ink used in printing words (name of colors), interference occurs. The interference is due to the conflicting stimuli that are being sent to the brain for processing. According to the automaticity theory, reading is an uncontrolled and unconscious process; hence any incompatibility in color used to print a word generates interference (MacLeod, 2015). Reading has also been described as being a faster process than indicating the properties of words. Faster processes interfere with slower ones and hence the delay in naming colors (MacLeod, 2015). Interference control is required to name the color used in printing the word accurately.
The Stroop test is a tool used to determine the attention and short-term memory engaged conscious perception and language processing. John Ridley Stroop developed the Stroop Test in 1935 (Stroop, 1935). Stroop found out that in tasks involving reading out words, there was very little difference in reading times, whether the words were printed in black or varied colors. Further, he found out that quite a huge interference occurred when participants were required to name the colors printed in mismatched ink as compared to a control where the printed letters had no relation to the color.
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When the colors and words are non-conflicting or neutral, brain processing is quite an easy task. This is because there is no conflicting data that needs to be processed and unpacked by the brain. However, in the case of conflicting colors and words, the brain strains to eliminate the rivaling signals. The part of the brain engaged in reading is so accustomed to an extent it is an automatic task (MacLeod, 2015). Hence when the color of letters is conflicting, the brain becomes activated to control the unconscious process and focus all the concentration to stating the color of the letters. Consequently, a delay results which is termed as the Stroop Effect.
This study investigated the Stroop effect of practice by having the participants read out words or say the name of the color. The study formulated the hypothesis that, with increasing conflicts, the Stroop Effect increases, but with increased practice, the Stroop Effect goes down.
Methods
The study aimed to investigate the Stroop Effect. The study was conducted as part of the Psychology class requirements. The study involved participants recruited from amongst the class members. The participants were grouped into 23 pairs. Twenty-three of the individuals in the study were active participants, while the rest 23 members acted as quality control for the study. The active participants comprised of 5 male participants and 18 female participants. The age of the participants ranged from 19 years to 37 years. The mean age of the participants was, however, computed as 25.1 years.
Different materials were used to accomplish this test. The experiment was conducted in a room. The test utilized ready-to-use sheets that contained the different sets of tasks that were to be undertaken. The sheets comprised of set A, set B, set C, and Set D. Set A had the names of different colors printed in black and white. Set B contained the names of colors printed in their corresponding colors. Set C had different letters in colored print. Set D had the names of different colors printed in mixed up colors. In other words, the color used in printing the name of the color was not necessarily correspondent to the color. The components of Set A, Set B, Set C, and Set D are shown in appendix B.
Participants were required to either read the words or say the color of the letters printed on the sheets. The other person in the same pair was required to record the time take to read or say the color of the letters. A timer was used to record the time taken to read. The precision of the timer was a 10 th of a second. An already prepared data table was used to key in different data. The data table had five columns for the different items, namely, the name of the test set, the task being undertaken (reading words or saying the color of letters), the nature of the task (conflicting or non-conflicting), the errors made and the time taken. Seven entries for the different test sets were made.
Design
To investigate the Stroop effect, an appropriate research design was tailored for this experiment. The study aimed to examine the different levels of interferences that may occur in accomplishing tasks. Consequently, different sheets with names of colors and letters printed were used. The participants were to perform various tasks that comprised of conflicting and non-conflicting tasks. The participants were involved in reading out the names or saying the color used in printing the letters. The time taken to respond was recorded using a timer. The nature of the task being accomplished in the particular test set was chosen as the independent variable for this study. The time taken to respond to each of the specific tasks in the study was the dependent variable.
The different levels of interference were investigated by crafting test sets that involved seven different sets of interferences. The various tasks accomplished were as stated below:
Test set A, which involved reading the words in set A. The task was non-conflicting since the task involved an automatic task, reading out words.
Test set A2, which involved repeating task 1.
Test A3, which was also a repetition of task 1.
Test set B that involved stating the color used to print the letters. The task was non-conflicting because the color used to print the letters matched the name of the color indicated.
Test set C, which involved stating the color of the letters. The task was non-conflicting or can be described as neutral since the letters printed had no relationship to the colors used in printing.
Test set D1, which involved reading out the words in set D. The task was conflicting because the words were printed in mixed colors with some matching the name of the color indicated while the others were non-matching. Hence, there was a likelihood of the brain receiving conflicting stimuli.
Test set D2, which involved stating the color of the letters. The test was conflicting as it involved words printed in colors that were non-matching to the indicated color. Thus, conflicting signals were being sent to the brain.
Note that the components of Set A, Set B, Set C, and Set D, as well as the data collection sheet are shown in appendix B and C, respectively.
Procedure
To undertake the Stroop Test, we split into pairs. One individual was involved in reading the test set while the other was engaged in checking the time taken to read and the errors made. Throughout all the tasks, I was involved in monitoring the time, and the errors made. The following procedure was followed to undertake the tasks:
The reader was engaged in the different set of tasks designed for this test. The various tasks to be completed were recorded in a data table. The nature of the task (conflicting or non-conflicting) was also keyed in the data table. The tasks comprised of conflicting and non-conflicting tasks.
The checker set the timer and noted any errors made by the reader. The time taken to accomplish the task and the errors made were recorded in the data table.
For tasks involving sets C and D, the checker used the answer keys to make tallies for all the errors made. In instances where the reader made more than three errors, the task was halted, discarded, and a fresh one started. Observations and notes made during the test were recorded below the data table.
The conflicting trials were repeated to assess whether the time taken and the errors made would reduce in the subsequent trial.
The time taken to accomplish the different tasks and the errors made, as recorded in the data table, were analyzed.
Results
The results obtained from the experiment are presented in Table 2 (see list of tables). The table outlines the time the reader took to complete each task. The average or mean for each set of data was calculated. The mean for the seven sets of data, Set A, Set B, Set C, Set D, Set D2, Set A2, and Set A3, was found to be 12.8, 13.2, 17.9, 15.3, 28.2, 11.2, and 10.7, respectively. In addition, the mean age of the participants was calculated and found to be 25.1 years.
The average time taken to complete the seven tasks is graphically presented, as shown in figure 5 (see list of figures). More specifically, the data was presented on an error bar. The error bar gives a clear picture of the seven tasks, comparing their means. From the graph, it clear that Set D2 has the highest average time and Set A3 had the lowest average time.
Discussion
The results obtained from the Stroop test experiment support our hypothesis. It was hypothesized that, with increasing conflicts, the Stroop Effect increases, but with increased practice, the Stroop Effect goes down. From the results obtained, it is evident that significant differences exist between the time it took the reader to complete the different tasks. The average time was calculated for Set A, Set B, Set C, Set D, Set 2, Set A2, and Set A3 and was found to be 12.8, 13.2, 17.9, 15.3, 28.2, 11.2, and 10.7, respectively.
On average, it took the reader a shorter time to complete Set A3. This is because the task was non-conflicting and was a repetition of task A. Thus, it took the reader less time to complete this task. The reader took a lot of time to complete Set D2 when compared to the other tasks. It took the reader a long time to complete this task because the task was conflicting as it involved words printed in colors that were non-matching to the indicated color. Thus, conflicting signals were being sent to the brain. For this reason, the reader took a lot of time to complete it.
When it comes to gender, the Stroop effect is stronger in women. From the results obtained, women recorded the longest time as when compared to men. In addition, it was also found that the Stroop Effect becomes stronger as one age. According to a study done by Wright et al. (2003), the Stroop Effect becomes stronger as one age. Thus, age has interference, and this is indicated in the results obtained from the experiment.
There were a number of limitations in the study, the first being the ratio of male to female. The ratio was not equal, as the females were more compared to men. Studies indicate that the Stroop Effect tend to vary between men and women. Secondly, fatigue may have occurred when conducting the study, slowing down the reading or timing process. Lastly, there were some distractions while conducting the study, and this affected the results of the study.
The objective of the experiment was achieved, which was to test the Stroop Effect. The results indicated that the Stroop Effect increases with increasing conflicts, but with increased practice, the Stroop Effect goes down. However, the study had some limitations as there are some factors that were not taken into accounts, such as reading reliability and the native language of the participants. Future studies ought to take these factors into account. The present study can be applied to support the theory relating to the Stroop Effect.
References
MacLeod, C. (2015). The Stroop Effect. Encyclopedia of Color Science and Technology. DOI: 10.10079/978-3-642-272-27851-8_67-1.
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology , 18 (6), 643.
Wright, B, C & Wanley, A (2003). Adults’ versus children’s performance on the Stroop task: Interference and facilitation. British Journal of Psychology 94, 475– 48
List of Tables
Data Collection Sheet |
||||
| Test Set (A, B, C...) | Task | Conflicting (Yes or No) | Errors | Time |
Table 1: Data Collection Sheet
| Data Sets | ||||||||||
| Set A | Set B | Set C | Set D | Set D2 | Set A2 | Set A3 | H/V | M/F | Age | |
|
16.0 |
20.0 |
19.0 |
32.0 |
32.0 |
17.0 |
16.0 |
H | F |
32 |
|
|
19.0 |
16.0 |
7.0 |
40.0 |
38.0 |
10.0 |
11.0 |
H | F |
35 |
|
|
10.6 |
10.9 |
13.2 |
12.2 |
21.3 |
9.9 |
10.7 |
V | M |
26 |
|
|
12.3 |
11.3 |
17.2 |
12.5 |
30.8 |
10.5 |
10.6 |
H | F |
21 |
|
|
9.5 |
10.7 |
14.0 |
14.0 |
27.7 |
8.6 |
8.7 |
H | F |
21 |
|
|
12.0 |
11.1 |
14.9 |
11.0 |
20.2 |
8.8 |
8.4 |
V | M |
20 |
|
|
15.7 |
12.0 |
23.6 |
11.8 |
30.7 |
11.7 |
10.5 |
H | F |
30 |
|
|
11.3 |
11.3 |
17.2 |
11.0 |
31.0 |
9.1 |
9.3 |
H | F |
24 |
|
|
13.0 |
12.1 |
14.9 |
12.6 |
21.0 |
10.5 |
9.5 |
H | F |
21 |
|
|
10.1 |
10.5 |
22.3 |
11.3 |
22.5 |
9.4 |
9.7 |
H | F |
24 |
|
|
14.7 |
14.5 |
21.7 |
13.6 |
36.3 |
16.5 |
14.3 |
V | F |
19 |
|
|
14.6 |
14.1 |
14.3 |
15.9 |
27.2 |
14.3 |
11.5 |
V | F |
20 |
|
|
11.5 |
13.2 |
16.2 |
11.6 |
26.4 |
11.1 |
10.8 |
V | F |
25 |
|
|
16.4 |
16.8 |
17.8 |
13.8 |
32.9 |
10.3 |
10.1 |
H | F |
25 |
|
|
11.0 |
10.6 |
17.5 |
20.5 |
25.7 |
9.8 |
9.7 |
V | F |
21 |
|
|
15.0 |
11.9 |
25.6 |
22.5 |
29.4 |
12.9 |
12.1 |
V | M |
35 |
|
|
14.3 |
14.1 |
20.1 |
15.3 |
25.3 |
13.7 |
10.4 |
H | M |
37 |
|
|
18.2 |
18.3 |
23.6 |
14.2 |
37.6 |
14.3 |
12.3 |
H | F |
26 |
|
|
10.0 |
11.6 |
14.2 |
12.0 |
24.0 |
10.2 |
8.4 |
H | F |
21 |
|
|
11.0 |
12.0 |
24.0 |
12.0 |
25.0 |
13.0 |
11.0 |
H | F |
20 |
|
|
11.0 |
10.6 |
20.0 |
10.0 |
30.0 |
9.0 |
10.0 |
H | M |
24 |
|
|
7.8 |
18.0 |
15.1 |
11.5 |
28.4 |
9.6 |
10.7 |
H | F |
30 |
|
|
9.7 |
12.3 |
18.4 |
11.5 |
25.3 |
10.5 |
10.1 |
H | F |
21 |
|
| Mean |
12.8 |
13.2 |
17.9 |
15.3 |
28.2 |
11.3 |
10.7 |
25.1 |
||
Table 2: Results
| Tasks | Mean | Standard Deviation |
| Set A |
12.8 |
2.90 |
| Set B |
13.2 |
2.74 |
| Set C |
17.9 |
4.27 |
| Set D |
15.3 |
7.10 |
| Set D2 |
28.2 |
4.95 |
| Set A2 |
11.3 |
2.37 |
| Set A3 |
10.7 |
1.72 |
Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviation of the Data Sets
