Child development encompasses so many factors which build the child as he or she grows up. Children need to be guided by adults to understand themselves, as well as their environment. Perhaps it is the reason why numerous prominent psychologists have come up with social theories revolving around the growth and development of children to make parents and guardians to understand the dynamics involved in children upbringing. Most of the theories deal with the psychological and cognitive development of the children as opposed to physical growth. It seems that the cognitive and psychological development have either a negative or positive impact on the physical growth of an individual. This working paper, however, seeks to define the issue of self-esteem as it relates to the wellbeing of children. Therefore, the paper defines the topic, provides a literature review, discusses the causes and consequences of low self-esteem, and lastly gives recommendations to people involved in childcare in different settings.
According to Cornbluth, (2014) self-esteem refers to an individual’s overall emotional assessment of his or her own worth. That means that an individual judges himself or herself as an attitude in relation to the self. Just the same way adults may be confronted by feelings of unworthiness, children too may lack self-esteem even though the causes may be slightly different. From Cornbluth’s description of self-esteem, two categories can be formed; high self-esteem and low self-esteem. Children with high self-esteem have positive feelings about themselves and towards life while those with low self-esteem have negative perceptions towards themselves, as well as towards their life. Therefore, self-esteem affects the mood of children. That means that those with high self-esteem tend to be happier than those with low self-esteem. The objective of this working paper is to investigate the causes of low self-esteem among children as well as its impact.
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Thesis : Many experts concerned or involved in child growth and development agree that low self-esteem is a risk factor in psychological and behavioral development. However, the public discussions or decisions that try to invest in prevention and treatment are not guided by empirical evidence about the causes or effects of low self-esteem.
Literature Review
Owing to the nature of the topic, most of the literature available is descriptive. Reese (2016) asserts that self-esteem arises out of internal sources. The author further posits that when individuals have a healthy self-esteem, they feel comfortable with themselves and do not depend on anybody else to make them feel good about themselves. Furthermore, healthy self-esteem makes children be confident, as well as aware of their strengths and weaknesses. Perhaps critics would question Reese whether children have the capacity to understand themselves the same way adults do. Often, social theorists contend that children depend on adults to guide their behavior. In a similar way, the children may rely on adults to make them understand their weaknesses and strengths. Therefore, unlike adults, children may be influenced by adults or their peers to feel good or sad about themselves.
Mruk (2013) also attempts to define self-esteem and the problems that emanate from the subject, particularly among children. Mruk looks at self-esteem as a competence. That means that people’s feelings in the world rely on what they see themselves to be and what they do. The self-feeling, thus, is determined by the ratio of their actualities and their supposed potentialities. From Mruk’s description, self-esteem is expressed as a ratio between success and pretensions where success is the numerator while pretensions form the denominator. Pretensions are similar to one’s aspirations, which might include dreams, desires, hopes, and goals. Even with Mruk’s description, children do not have goals that are as evident as those of adults. This definition is therefore limiting because children depend on adults to shape their direction or make them realize their potential. On the same note, children do not have significant responsibilities that may warrant the need for goals (Brooks, 2012). On the contrary, children shape perceptions about themselves while interacting with their peers or adults in their environment.
Harter (2015) tries to describe the self. Her book explores the development of the self, the cognitive-developmental and sociocultural influences that define its formation. Harter asserts that it is always inevitable for individuals to perform perceptions about themselves from a young age. Furthermore, Harter suggests that the self is a social construction. In that perspective, the socialization experiences of children with their families or in other social spaces determines their self-evaluations. Consequently, children may try to balance positive and negative self-evaluations. Additionally, Harter posits that the self-evaluative content depends on the valence of the reflected judgments of how significant other people treat the self. The judgments become internalized when children become aware of the perception of others towards the self. As children continue to grow, the scope of the individuals who offer evaluations expands. Such individuals may be teachers, peer groups, and other adults. Initially, a child may only be aware of his or her family but when he or she begins to learn, the school becomes another society that has significant influence. Harter’s study, in contrast to that of Mruk (2013) and Reese (2016) seems to be more specific in relation to self-esteem in children.
Children Development Theories
It is important to understand some prominent development theories in children to define how self-esteem may be shaped in children. While many works of literature give a general description of self-esteem, understanding various theories related to child growth and development can help narrow the scope. In this section, the cognitive theory and the parenting styles concept are analyzed.
Cognitive Theory
Jean Piaget is credited for this theory, and many people involved in the care of children are conversant with it. Piaget suggested that the cognitive skills of children go through a series of phases where new information and experiences are absorbed and understood. The prominent stages in childhood development that were proposed by Piaget comprise of the sensori-motor (occurs between birth to 24 months) and preoperational (from 2 to 4 years) stages. During the sensori-motor stage, children try to learn how to coordinate and imitate actions that are pleasing (Demetriou, Shayer & Efklides, 2016). Additionally, the children begin to comprehend that words can replace objects. During the operational phase on the contrary, language becomes a critical element of development. Children may begin to involve themselves in pretend play and may assume roles such as mummy and daddy. However, children in this phase are still egocentric and will hardly rely on the opinions of their peers to make decisions. As earlier described in the literature review, Reese (2016) and Mruk’s (2013) definitions may not hold if an individual believes wholly in Piaget’s cognitive theory.
Piaget had the conviction that from the time children are born, they attempt to explore and master their own surroundings, have the desire to master, and develop self-confidence by doing. In line with the cognitive theory, Brown & Desforges (2013) points out that children learn by absorbing new information in a process known as assimilation. That means that the prior understanding of the children changes to accommodate the new information. Piaget also suggested that children must establish a balance between assimilation and accommodation for them to move to the next stage of development. Therefore, children in the sensori-motor and preoperational phases ought to be provided with the opportunities and the experiences to learn new information. However, caregivers must also be careful about those experiences because they contribute significantly to the development of the child.
Parenting Styles
It is a concept that was developed by Diana Baumrind but was later broadened by Macoby and Martin. The concept describes the extent to which parents or guardians respond to the needs of their children, the disciplinary methods they use, the parental expectations for maturity and control, as well as, the impact that mentioned aspects have on the development of the child (Nevid, 2012). Under this concept, there are four parenting styles namely: authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and uninvolved.
Nevid (2012) posits that the authoritarian parenting style can be described as being ‘too hard’ on children. Armstrong et al. (2014) points out that this parenting style is highly demanding but is not responsive. In this style, children are required to follow stringent rules and failure to adhere to the rules can cause the child to be punished. That means that parents using this type of parenting attach a lot of importance on obedience, order, tradition, and also require that children obey them without questioning. (Nevid, 2012) says that this style may result to children who are proficient and obedient but also less happy and self-confident. On extreme ends, some parents may be abusive.
The second parenting style, permissive, is variously described as being too soft. Parents in this category have relatively low demands on their children and Nevid (2012) points out that it is a highly responsive parenting style. Parents give their children the opportunity to regulate their behavior but remain communicative and nurturing. Additionally, parents under this category seem to be more of friends than parents to their children. Nevertheless, critics such as Armstrong et al. (2014) argue that this parenting style may result to children who not only tend to be spoiled and self-centered but may also not perform well in school.
In regard to the authoritative type of parenting, it is perceived to fall between authoritarian and permissive. That means that it is moderate. Just like in the authoritarian style, authoritative parents set rules and limits in which children are bound but allow the children to ask questions or seek clarifications (Reese, 2016). Additionally, when children fail to meet the set expectations, authoritative parents are more likely to forgive them. Nevid (2012) says that children of authoritative parents tend to be more capable, happier, and successful.
In the last parenting style, uninvolved, there are relatively few demands, little communication and low responsiveness. Seemingly the parents get detached from the life of their children, and in extreme ends may reject or neglect their children. Consequently, their children may have low self-esteem, lack self-control and become less competent than their peers (Reese, 2016). In the contemporary world where people seem to be very busy, many parents may become uninvolved in the wellbeing of their children. Parents who engage in drug abuse or irresponsible sexual habits may also neglect their children. In many cases, however, such children may be taken to foster homes for care.
Causes of Low Self-Esteem among Children
At Home
As earlier described, low self-esteem refers to the feelings of unworthiness among children. Kohnstamm (2014) points out that feelings of low self-esteem may start at the family level. That means that the type of parenting style to a large extent dictates the self-esteem of a child. In the authoritarian style of parenting, the child may have low self-esteem because the child is never given a chance to make decisions on his or her own. Parents who constantly rebuke their children when they do not do something right lower their esteem. When children are told that they are not good enough, they intend to internalize such comments, which in turn have undesirable impacts on their morale. The other problem with the authoritarian style of parenting is that children are not given the chance to express themselves. That means that children cannot clarification whenever they experience challenges when doing the assigned tasks. Children may even fear to ask for guidance from their parents or guardians for fear of being rebuked or ashamed in front of their peers. As a result, children may panic hence may not do the tasks assigned to them in the correct manner (Emler, 2012). Failing each time makes the children have negative perceptions of themselves.
In the uninvolved parenting style, children may develop low self-esteem particularly when they do not have people to address their concerns. Emler (2012) points out that children constantly compare themselves with their peers. Children may see that the parents of their peers are close to them and are more concerned of their welfare than their parents are. Parents who are aloof from their children make their children unsure of what to do hence creating the feeling of low self-esteem among their children. Experts such as Trzesniewski et al. (2006) suggest that the authoritative parenting style is the most favorable in regard to boosting the self-esteem of children. It is because as much as parents set the bounds within which their children ought to conduct themselves, they also provide a chance for the children to ask questions. This parenting style also provides the chance for correction because failure to meet the objectives does not necessarily lead to punishment. According to Kohnstamm (2014), attainment of the stipulated goals makes the children to develop a sense of pride.
At School
Children spend a significant part of their life in school. Trzesniewski et al. (2006) suggest that the home environment may not have a significant impact on the self-esteem of children compared to the school environment. According to Kohnstamm (2014), it is at school that children begin to develop a lot of social constructions about themselves in relation to their peers. The appearance of their peers, as well as their academic performance may have a considerable impact on their self-esteem. Children may develop negative perceptions about themselves when they think that their peers are better. If children do not perform as well as their peers, they may develop low self-esteem.
Perhaps the most prominent issue that causes some children to have low self-esteem at school is bullying. Kohnstamm (2014) defines bullying as both the physical or psychological intimidation of children by their peers who perceive themselves to be superior. Bullying can take both the physical and verbal abuse. Most children throughout the world go through intimidation during their development process. Nevid (2012) suggests that boys most of the time use physical confrontation while bullying their peers while girls may resort to verbal abuse to intimidate their peers. In the contemporary world, bullying is being extended to the internet where some children post bad comments about their peers on social media sites.
Social Media
Currently, very young children are being allowed to access mobile phones, and consequently, the internet. However, many parents are unable to regulate the content that their children can access (Cornbluth, 2014). Even if they tried to regulate the content, social media sites have low measures in regard to the content that people are expected to post. Children come across content that makes them feel unworthy. Most people on social media tend to portray themselves as lived the best life hence some children may try to evaluate themselves in comparison to the various individuals on social media.
Consequences of Low Self-Esteem
According to Brooks (2012), the immediate impacts of low self-esteem in children are the feelings of depression and loneliness among children. Since the mental and psychological wellbeing of children are not as developed as those of their adults, children have little self-control. These effects are particularly prominent in children whose parents are uninvolved or are authoritarian. The styles of parenting do not give time and opportunity to children to have their concerns addressed. In severe cases, children may develop suicidal thoughts.
Secondly, another dire consequence of low self-esteem especially at school is a drop in academic performance. It happens especially when children are bullied by their peers. The negative perceptions developed by those children who are bullied makes them unable to concentrate on their studies (Armstrong et al., 2014). In some cases, children may ask their parents to transfer them to other schools or just refuse to go to school. For parents that are not understanding such as those that use the authoritarian parenting style, their children may decide to drop from school and even run away from home.
Lastly, low self-esteem among children may make some of them to start engaging in undesirable social behavior. The most prominent one is using drugs and engaging in violent behavior. In an attempt to gain confidence and boost their level of self-esteem, some children may abuse drugs. Some children may also want to look superior by intimidating their peers (Brooks, 2012). Additionally, some children who are constantly intimidated by their peers may decide to confront them physically. There have been cases of legal dilemmas where minors cause grievous harm to their peers in an attempt to revenge provocation. Most of the time, it is the parents or schools which take the full responsibility of the conduct of the children.
Recommendations and Conclusion
Self-esteem in children is shaped under different environments. As already mentioned, perceptions of children are prominently shaped by their families and the school environment. Low self-esteem results when children are rebuked, bullied or left unattended to. Since children look upon adults as their role models, the way parents their parents interact with them defines the manner in which they view themselves. As already mentioned, authoritarian parents make their children to have low self-esteem because they do not give them a chance to be independent in terms of making decisions. Also, the parenting style does not allow children to get clarification from parents. The failure to attainment the designated goals leads to punishment rather than correction. Authoritative style is the best because children are given targets and regulations but are also given a chance to communicate with their parents or guardians.
It is important that adults try to boost the level of child self-esteem of children by adopting good parenting and guidance methods. As much as parents are supposed to regulate the conduct of their children, they also ought to provide a chance for their children to interact with them. It is an important step towards addressing the concerns of their children. Doing so eliminates to a large extent the chances of children developing undesirable disorders such as depression. For school administrators, as well as teachers, they need to ensure that the environment is conducive for all children. Children who bully their peers need to be punished or talked to. It is also vital that teachers avoid using negative comments especially on children that seem not to perform well compared to their peers. Instead, children that seem to lag behind in academics need to be encouraged. Overly, adults in all the environments that concern child development ought to develop positive approaches towards guiding the children.
References
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Cornbluth, S. (2014). Building Self-Esteem in Children and Teens Who Are Adopted or Fostered . Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Demetriou, A., Shayer, M., & Efklides, A. (Eds.). (2016). Neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development: Implications and applications for education . Routledge.
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Nevid, J. (2012). Psychology: Concepts and applications . Nelson Education.
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Trzesniewski, K. H., Donnellan, M. B., Moffitt, T. E., Robins, R. W., Poulton, R., & Caspi, A. (2006). Low self-esteem during adolescence predicts poor health, criminal behavior, and limited economic prospects during adulthood. Developmental psychology , 42 (2), 381.
