Literature Review of Stereotype Threat

Introduction

A stereotype threat refers to a psychological threat arising from a situation for which a negative stereotype regarding an individual’s group applies. According to the stereotype threat theory, members belonging to a particular marginalized group recognize the existence of a negative stereotype in reference to their group (Steele & Aronson, 1995). Additionally, the members of such a group often demonstrate apprehension relating to the confirmation of the negative stereotype by engaging in particular activities. The fact that members belonging to the group for which a certain negative stereotype applies tend to perform poorly in many areas relative to the dominant group. As such, the members tend to live up to the negative stereotype about their group, often to their detriment. 

The theory of stereotype threat was developed by Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson. The two social scientists created the term stereotype threat based on an important early study that they conducted in 1995. The study defined the stereotype threat as a risk of confirming a particular negative stereotype about an individual’s group as part of a self-characteristic. Thus, the two scientists posited that the members of such a group would always be socially defined by the negative stereotype associated with their group. In their study, Steele and Aronson observed that the performance of black students were different from that of their white counterpart. Essentially, the study was developed in response to a negative stereotype about black students that pervaded culture. The negative stereotype was that black students were generally less intelligent compared to white students (Steele et al., 2002). Based on this particular negative stereotype about black students, the two social scientists sought to establish whether the black students would try to dis-identify with achievement in school protectively. Thus, such the desire among the black students to disengage from intellectual pursuits could render them living up to their identified negative stereotype. Surprisingly, the results of the study confirmed the suspicion of the two social scientists. The black students were observed to perform worse in the test when the instructor emphasized the role of race in their performance. However, when the instructors desisted from emphasizing the role of race in performance, the black students matched their white counterparts in terms of performance. 

Therefore, the stereotype threat manifests where individuals fear that they will live up to a negative stereotype regarding their group. Such a fear has significant consequences in their lives and behaviors. In response to such a fear, the people belonging to the group associated with a certain negative stereotype threat participate in self-defeating behaviors that ironically lead them into living up to the feared stereotype. 

Literature Review

Stereotype Threat and Achievement

According to Steele, student performance on tests can be influenced significantly by heightened awareness of stereotypes, particularly negative racial stereotypes. The negative stereotypes result in a stereotype threat, which is believed to contribute to achievement gaps that are either race-based or gender-based (Adams et al., 2006). It is important to realize that the stereotype threat theory has gained significant attention from many social, political and academic fronts. As such, the debate surrounding the theory and its effects on the minority groups has prompted efforts to reduce its effects in educational settings, particularly in testing situations. The theory has also led policymakers to question the fairness of the various tests used to make important academic decisions regarding students, schools, and teachers. 

Situational factors, compared to individual personalities, are more effective in either strengthening or weakening the effects of the stereotype threat. For instance, past studies have observed that student performance is significantly influenced by how the test administered is described by the instructors in the various educational settings (Aronson et al., 2002). Essentially, the black students performed worse if they were told that the tests were meant to measure their level of intelligence, compared to their white counterparts. However, the case would be totally different whenever they were told that the tests were actually meant to diagnose their genera; ability to solve problems. For instance, the race-based performance gap significantly disappeared when the students were told that the tests were aimed at establishing their individual abilities to solve problems rather than measuring their level of intelligence. This suggests that, indeed, stereotype threat has significant implications on the performance of students, particularly those from minority groups. This is because the minority groups are often associated with negative stereotypes, such as low levels of intelligence. 

From a gender perspective, women have also been associated with a negative stereotype, in respect to their male counterparts. According to a study conducted by psychologists at Stanford University and the University of Waterloo, the black student is potentially a better student and has a lot of potential. However, the performance of the black student is hampered by the worry that he might end up confirming the stereotype that blacks generally perform poor in intellectual tests. Such a stereotype threat prevents the black student from doing as well as he could. However, when the stereotype threat is significantly minimized, the ethnic minorities often outperform their majority counterparts. The stereotype threat is often embedded in general classroom settings, as well as standardized test. The impact of stereotype threat was confirmed by Greg Walton and Steven Spencer in their study of 19,000 students in the United States, France, Canada, Sweden and Germany. The stereotype threat affects the performance of minorities in educational settings. This implies that the minority students, often black, can even score better marks in the absence of the stereotype threat. Black and Hispanic students are more likely affected by stereotype threat in the performance in school. This demonstrates that stereotype threat has negative effects on the achievements of individuals. 

The problem of stereotype threat is not limited to minority groups alone, as majority groups are also affected. For instance, the stereotype that white men cannot jump better than blacks can significantly undermine the athletic performance of white men (Blanton, 2000). Thus, if at all there is a white man who can perform better than a black man in athletics; his performance will be adversely affected by the stereotype threat. Essentially, human beings are generally influenced by how other people perceive them. It is unfortunate that if an individual performs badly, other people can think badly about the individual’s group, leading to the creation of a stereotype, often a negative one. It is important to realize that a stereotype threat is not only distracting, but also undermine performance. 

The academic performance of students, particularly from minority groups, is influenced by negative stereotypes. For instance most standardized tests, such as SAT and GRE are usually associated with stereotype threats (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001). Students sitting such tests are often asked to identify their ethnicity or gender, putting negative stereotype issues front and center in their minds. Women may be aware of the stereotype that men are always better in math than women. Such a negative stereotype can affect the performance of women in the test. There is generally an untapped potential in people who are often targeted by negative stereotypes in the society. The people who are faced by negative stereotypes tend to perform at a level that does not really reflect their true potential. The stereotype threat has been observed to have significant practical and social implications among those affected. For instance, the tests may not be effective in determining the intellectual ability of individuals if they are biased against certain groups in the population of interest. Some tests can hide the potential of otherwise better individuals who are negatively stereotyped. 

In the current society, success largely depends on an individual’s academic performance. Good academic performance goes a long way in securing good life for individuals. However, poor academic performance reduces an individual’s chances of becoming successful in life (Crocker & Wolfe, 2001). This is because eligibility for most highly paying jobs is generally pegged on academic performance. The stigma associated with a particular negative stereotype may hinder one’s academic performance, particularly in educational settings where racial or gender stereotypes are emphasized explicitly or implicitly. Standardized tests that require students to identify their gender or races tend to target the groups that are negatively stereotyped. Social psychologists have suggested that negative stereotypes have negative impacts on the potential achievements of individuals. In the United States, the African Americans and Hispanics are more targeted by negative stereotypes. 

Victims of Stereotype Threat

Research has shown that almost everyone is vulnerable to stereotype threat. Stereotype threat can affect any individual whose situation invokes some stereotype-based expectation of poor performance. This is because every individual in the society belongs to at least one group that is associated with some type of stereotype (Beaton et al., 2007). Essentially, any salient social identity can warrant poor performance on a task that offer the possibility of a particular negative stereotype being confirmed. A wide range of social groups are associated with some type of negative stereotype. This means that stereotype threat faces an individual that belongs to any of the groups. Women have been associated with poor performance in mathematics. Therefore, a general stereotype that women cannot perform well in mathematics exists (Abrams et al., 2004). This stereotype has significant impacts on the performance of women in math courses. Thus, women who are exposed to such a stereotype threat are more likely to perform poorly compared to their male counterparts in educational settings. Whites are also affected by the idea of stereotypes. For instance, whites suffer the negative stereotype that they always appear racist. Therefore, whites may behave in a manner suggesting that they are racists even if they actually are not. Students from low socioeconomic backgrounds are generally viewed to perform poorly on intellectual tasks. On the contrary, students from high socioeconomic backgrounds are believed to perform well on intellectual tasks. Therefore, the negative stereotype associated with students from low socioeconomic backgrounds affect their performance on intellectual tasks negatively. This implies that their performance levels do not actually reflect their true abilities. 

Consequences of Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat has significant impacts on individuals affected. The groups which are stigmatized by the stereotype threat often underachieve on academic exams. Although academic tasks have been considered to be culture free and relatively pure tools of measuring cognitive ability, they can be influenced by negative stereotypes. Additionally, stereotype threat has also been observed to cause decreased performance on tasks that are academic in nature. For instance, stereotype threat may affect the ability of women to negotiate or drive competently. White men in sports can also be affected negatively by stereotype threat (Blanton et al., 2000). Basically, white men are considered to perform poorly in athletics compared to their black counterparts who are generally treated as better in terms of sports. 

Individuals who are affected by negative stereotypes also tend to use self-defeating strategies, such as discounting tasks or reducing practicing time. In terms of task discounting, individuals faced with stereotype threat may end up questioning the validity of the task at hand, as well as the significance of the particular trait being tested. For instance, women who perform poorly in math tasks tend to claim that the test was tricky. Although the strategy of task discounting can help the individuals to protect the self from the consequences associated with poor performance, it can significantly undermine motivation. 

Altered professional aspirations and identities is another significant consequence of stereotype threat. The stereotyped individuals may end up redirecting their aspirations and even career paths. For instance, women in male dominated disciplines indicated that there were higher levels of gender discrimination and stereotype threat. Such women were more likely to switch to other disciplines where they felt that there was less stereotype threat. 

Situations Leading to Stereotype Threat 

There are various situations that lead to stereotype threat in day to day life. There various situations that render individuals vulnerable to stereotype threat include group identity salience, numerical minority status, stereotype salience, and evaluative scrutiny. In terms of group identity salience, individuals tend to experience stereotype threat whenever their stereotyped group status is made conspicuous by certain situational features (Brown et al., 1999). For instance, individuals can be faced by stereotype threat when their identity relevant information is solicited, particularly before the test. Many researchers have even recommended that students should be asked about their identity relevant information after the exam rather than before the exam. 

Numerical minority can expose an individual to stereotype threat. When one finds that he is the only one of his group, he feels that he or she is the single representative of a negatively stereotyped group (Cohen et al., 1999). As such, numerical minority can elevate stereotype threat. For instance, women have been observed to perform well in tests where they were more in number compared to men. However, when the number of men sitting the tests increased, their performance declined. Stereotype salience is another situation that leads to stereotype threat. Basically, identities can be threatened, particularly when such stereotypes are invoked in the performance environment. For instance, the performance of women has been observed to be harmed when they are supposed to work in the presence of an instructor who is perceived to have sexist attitudes. Evaluative scrutiny is also another important factor that exposes an individual to stereotype threat. When an individual realizes that his ability is a stereotypic domain and will be evaluated, he will experience a sense of stereotype threat. 

Mechanisms behind the Stereotype Threat 

According to research, there are various mechanisms behind stereotype threats. Some researchers have identified anxiety, negative cognition, lowered performance expectations, physiological arousal, reduced self-control, reduced effort, reduced working memory capacity, and reduced creativity. Several researchers have supported the role of these factors in various contexts in regards to stereotype threat. 

According to Beilock and others, anxiety is one of the factors believed to play a role in stereotype threat. The emotional reactions exhibited by individuals faced by stereotype threat may be responsible for interfering with performance. According to Bosson et al, the effects of stereotype threat normally reflect increased anxiety, particularly after confirming a negative stereotype regarding one’s group. Negative cognition is believed by researchers to be another mechanism associated with stereotype threat. This is because a typical stereotype threat can increase stereotype-related thinking which can distract individuals. Distraction can lead to loss of motivation among the affected individuals (Ambady et al., 2006). This leads to the poor performance often associated with stereotype threat. For instance, research has shown that women’s math performance declined when gender differences in terms of mat problem solving were highlighted by the instructors. Lowered performance expectations are also another important factor that represents the mechanisms behind stereotype threat. Essentially, when individuals expect to perform poor in a certain task, they will certainly perform poor due to low self-efficacy levels. 

Physiological arousal has also been identified as another significant mechanism behind stereotype threat. Several studies have shown that stereotype threat affects physiological processes in an individual’s body. According to Croizet et al. (2004), undergraduate students under a given stereotype threat performed poorly on a task described as being a valid measure of the general intellectual ability of individuals. Additionally, women under stereotype threat have been shown to perform better on easy math tests, but worse on difficult math tests, compared to those that were not exposed to the stereotype threat. 

Individuals under stereotype threat generally exhibit reduced effort. This can be generally attributed to low expectations of performance. According to Cadinu and others (2005), when individuals believe that they will perform poorly, they will expend less effort in doing the task. For instance, people under stereotype threat often fail to prepare well for tasks before them. Reduced self-control has also been identified as an important mechanism behind stereotype threat. According to Aronson (2006), stereotype threat can diminish an individual’s ability to direct their attentions and behavior to more purposeful ways. For instance, blacks who reported having anxious expectations regarding racial prejudice reported lower ability to regulate the academic behavior effectively. The individuals under stereotype threat also reported reduced working memory (Davis, 2006). This undermines the ability of the victims to meet the information processing needs of the often complex intellectual tasks. Stereotype threat can also be manifested by reduced creativity. People under stereotype threat tend to exhibit low levels of creativity, affecting performance of assigned tasks negatively. 

Suggested Strategies for Reducing Stereotype Threat 

The effects of stereotype threat have been demonstrated in various studies. In the same breath, the various effects of stereotype threat can be reduced or eliminated by various means. This can be done by moving inquiring regarding race or gender to the end of a test, advising individuals to view themselves as multi-faceted, highlighting social identities that are not associated with underperformance, encouraging self-affirmation, and providing role models. 

The enquiring regarding either gender or race preceding examinations should be moved to the end in order to avoid the influence of potential stereotype threat. Women have been observed to perform better in situations where gender sensitive demographics were solicited after tests (Keller, 2006). The individuals should always be encouraged to think of themselves as multifaceted. This will motivate them to expend more efforts in their tasks due to high self-efficacy. The instructors should also consider highlighting social identities that are not linked to under-performance in a particular domain. Additionally, instructors should also encourage self-affirmation among individuals. Affirming self-worth helps in eliminating the effects of negative stereotypes. Providing successful role models from within the stereotyped group can also help in reducing the effects of stereotype threat. 

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is demonstrable that the subject of stereotype threat has generated significant attention from several scholars. Various studies have emphasized the impact of stereotype threat on individuals who belong to stereotyped groups in the society. The impact of stereotype threat is more pronounced in the education sector, with black students affected more by negative stereotypes relating to their intellectual ability. Some of the most notable scholars who have contributed to the body of knowledge in the subject of stereotype threat include Steele, Aronson, and Spencer. The scholars have made significant efforts in examining how group stereotypes influence how students evaluate themselves. This in turn not only alters academic identity, but also intellectual performance. 

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