Correlational research design is commonly used when the researcher wants to explore the relationship between variables. Causal comparative design is applied when there is need to determine cause and effect when independent variables cannot be examined using controlled experiments. The similarities between correlational and causal comparative design is that both are examples of associational research method where researcher conduct both studies to find relationship between variables. Similarly, both designs seek to find variables that can be used for later exploration in experimental research and both give guidance for future experimental studies (Fairbrother, 2014).
The differences between correlational and causal comparative design include; in causal comparative two or more groups of subjects are typically compared while correlational studies need a score of every variable for each subject. Additionally, causal comparative includes at least one categorical variable while correlational studies explore two or more quantitative variables (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Consequently, in experimental research, there is manipulation of independent variable in causal comparative research while no manipulation take place in correlation research.
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Establishing effective pathways in transition of students from high school to colleges is vastly important and some have established promising approaches. This causal comparative case study seeks to address the leadership behaviors and practices in college formation and career academy model in one urban school by using a disseminated leadership framework (Malin & Hackman, 2017) . The research question that guide the study is how do formal and informal leadership work collaboratively to implement a college and a career academy model.
The previous leadership study was characterized by investigations of individual leaders that contradicts current reliability of leadership practice in schools. The application of distributed leadership is framed as a product of joint interaction of institution leaders, followers and situation aspects such as routines (Malin & Hackman, 2017) . Additionally, diverse leadership functions that cut across formal administrative positions, networks and relationship throughout the school were established.
Practitioners and organizational leaderships scholars have long argued on the need to look further beyond the top organization hierarchy. Additionally, the research on distributed leadership originally focused on the school level which has recently expanded to district level and into higher education settings (Lashway, 2003).
The methods used applied a broad research question to address the how the formal and informal leaders work in collaboration to implement college and career academy level. To address the question a qualitative inquiry was used through a single site case study. The case selected for the study was Lincoln High School (LHS) which clearly implemented the career pathways and could serve as model for other schools. Data collection spanned for two academic years (Yin, 2009). The data sources included on transcripts of one-on-one interviews and focus group interviews held in 2013-2014 and 2014-2015, observing classroom learning experiences in both years, content examination of documents provided by school leaders. Additionally, participants with varied roles in implementation of college and career academy model at LHS were interviewed. Leaders of each academy as well as sample of community leaders involved in academic reforms were interviewed.
Direct content analysis was applied and described the relationship between the leaders and followers in relevant aspects of the situation. Constant comparative methods were used to analyze data and emerge themes. Triangulation was achieved by gathering information over time in variety of social situations from numerous individuals. The study included more that one researcher from gathering data to data analysis enabling investigator triangulation (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) .
Seven themes were generated based on observation, interviews, and artifacts review. The first theme established was building a shared vision regarding college and career academics, employment of supportive structures related tools and approaches emphasized by majority of individuals interviewed. Additionally, expanding leadership opportunities to community members and postsecondary partners would bear more fruits (Stipanovic, et al., 2012) . Also, emergence of leaders and champions to support academies to create a collaborative effort would enhance college and career academy level (Malin & Hackman, 2017) . Consequently, cultural shifts would improve participation and organic change. Additionally, the study participants experienced benefits associated with LHS reforms and experienced challenges of change which were described by academy team leaders closest to the implementation level.
Formal and informal leadership should work collaboratively for effective college and career model. However, studies of distributed leadership have been confined with the organization boundaries. There is need to involve leadership contributions emerging from outside organization (Alfeld & Bhattacharya, 2012) . In LHS the district adoption of the reform has stimulated increase in leadership distribution through interdependence management and coordination. Some of the recommendation generated from this case study involve fostering leadership to effectively develop and implement college and career pathways (Malin & Hackman, 2017) . Also, the restructuring should be thoughtful and intentional to enable cross disciplinary collaboration. Consequently, the potential power outside the school should not be underestimated, and a safe and supporting culture should be encouraged. Finally, school officials should regularly collect and analyses data on effects of career and college academy model for students.
References
Alfeld, C., & Bhattacharya, S. (2012). Mature programs of study: A structure for the transition to college and career. International Journal of Educational Reform , 21 (2), 119-137.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches . Sage publications.
Fairbrother, G. P. (2014). Quantitative and qualitative approaches to comparative education. In Comparative Education Research (pp. 71-93). Springer, Cham.
Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative health research , 15 (9), 1277-1288.
Lashway, L. (2003). Distributed Leadership. Research Roundup , 19 (4), n4.
Malin, J. R., & Hackmann, D. G. (2017). Enhancing students’ transitions to college and careers: A case study of distributed leadership practice in supporting a high school career academy model. Leadership and Policy in Schools , 16 (1), 54-79.
Stipanovic, N., Shumer, R., & Stringfield, S. (2012). Lessons Learned from Highly Implemented Programs of Study. Techniques: Connecting Education and Careers (J1) , 87 (1), 20-23.
Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (applied social research methods). London and Singapore: Sage .
