Overview of Oklahoma City Bombing
The Oklahoma City bombing took place in the United States on April 19, 1995, where a bomb hidden in a truck exploded, consequently damaging the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building (Jenkins, 2018). The bombing was considered to be one of the deadliest terrorist attacks in the country at that time. It killed 168 individuals, and more than 500 people were critically injured. Sadly, among those killed, 19 of them were children. The first suspects of the attack were the terrorist group in the Middle East. However, attention quickly shifted to two Americans namely, Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols. Both had served in the U.S military and were linked with the militant patriot and extreme right-wing movement (Jenkins, 2018). McVeigh was convicted and executed in 2001 whereas Nichols was sentenced to life in prison.
Overview of Hurricane Katrina
According to Zimmermann (2015), Hurricane Katrina is viewed as one of the deadliest hurricanes to hit American soil. It occurred on August 29, 2005. Roughly 1,833 individuals, unfortunately, passed away in the storm and many others lost their homes in New Orleans and along the Gulf Coast. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Katrina was the most dangerous storm to hit the country causing $108billion in damage (Zimmermann, 2015). Levee breaches resulted in massive flooding, and many individuals claimed that the federal government acted slowly in meeting the peoples’ needs impacted by the storm. Millions of individuals in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Alabama lost their homes (History.com Staff, 2009). However, its impact was mainly witnessed in New Orleans. Ideally, prior to the storm, the population of the city was mostly black, and many individuals lived in poverty. Katrina escalated these conditions and left many poor people even more vulnerable than they had been prior to the storm. The storm was also the costliest storm in the history of the United States. It is imperative to note that when the storm landed, it was given a category 3 rating.
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Psychological Symptoms Exhibited by Direct Attack Victims
According to North (2010), the direct victims of the Oklahoma City bombing had one or more signs of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The most common post-disaster diagnosis was PTSD being roughly twice as common among women (0.45%) as men (0.23%) (North, 2010). Even though PTSD cannot be typically diagnosed until after one month has passed from the time of the trauma, PTSD cases were common , with 0.76% starting the day of the bombing, 0.94% within a week, and 0.98& within a month (North, 2010). It is vital to note that all cases of PTSD were chronic. Victims displayed symptoms such as intrusive re-experience signs (such as nightmares and flashbacks), numbing and avoidance signs (such as active avoidance of event reminders, numbing emotions, and emotional distancing from loved ones) (North, 2010). North (2010) also notes that the victims had hyperarousal symptoms (e.g., sleep disturbance, jumpiness, hypervigilance for impending danger, and impaired concentration). The second major mental disorder was major depression.
According to Lancaster, teeters, Gros, & Back (2016), PTSD is diagnosed based on the diagnostic criteria in DSM-5. Generally, disorder-specific interviews and PTSD Symptom Scale- Interview version exist to examine the spectrum of psychiatric disorders. For instance, the Structured Clinical Interview of DSM-5 Disorders (SCID) is useful in offering PTSD diagnostics (Lancaster, Teeters, Gros, & Back, 2016).
On the other hand, the direct victims of Hurricane Katrina displayed symptoms of insomnia, followed by sadness, and anxiety. Only a few of the patients presented with posttraumatic symptoms. PTSD was not the most popular issue identified among the victims. Most victims showed signs of major depression immediately after the hurricane. The second most prevalent disorder was schizophrenia .
Moreover , victims also suffered from cocaine and alcohol use disorders. In addition , autism, mental retardation, delirium, attention deficit disorder, and dementia were seen among the victims (North, 2010). The children mostly presented symptoms of attention deficit disorder.
Psychological Symptoms Exhibited By Indirect Victims
Generally, indirect victims such as friends, family, and co-workers of the direct victims most displayed symptoms of depression and alcohol and drug use disorders. Very few indirect victims displayed PTSD symptoms. The few cases of PTSD was mainly among family members of the direct victims. Friends and co-workers primarily engaged in alcohol use and drug abuse to deal with the stress of both mass-casualty incidents. They displayed symptoms of anxiety, sadness, as well as insomnia.
Immediate and Long-term Treatment Plans for the Victims
After Hurricane Katrina occurred, the Substance Abuse and Mental health Services Administration (SAMHSA) provided resources to assist in the process of recovery of the victims. It has created a toll-free hotline for individuals in crisis in consequence of this devastating disaster. It has put in place three mechanisms to offer assistance to accommodate the mental needs of the Katrina victims. They include the Crisis Counseling Assistance and Training program (CCP), SAMHSA Emergency Response Grants (SERG), and supplemental appropriations. As a result, the administration offers both immediate and long-term care to the victims.
After the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing, the federal authorities came up with crisis intervention techniques to deal with traumatic effects on the victims. Project Heartland was established to provide crisis intervention to the victims. It focused on crisis counseling, outreach, support groups, education, and consultation to the victims of the attack. Project Heartland was primarily a community mental health response to the attack.
References
History.com Staff. (2009). Hurricane Katrina. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/hurricane-katrina
Jenkins, J. P. (2018, July 10). Oklahoma City bombing. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/event/Oklahoma-City-bombing
Lancaster, C. L., Teeters, J. B., Gros, D. F., & Back, S. E. (2016). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Overview of Evidence-Based Assessment and Treatment. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 5 (11), 105. doi:10.3390/jcm5110105
North, C. S. (2010). A tale of two studies of two disasters: Comparing psychosocial responses to disaster among Oklahoma City bombing survivors and Hurricane Katrina evacuees. Rehabilitation Psychology, 55 (3), 241-246. doi:10.1037/a0020119
Zimmermann, K. A. (2015, August 27). Hurricane Katrina: Facts, Damage & Aftermath. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/22522-hurricane-katrina-facts.html
