Operant conditioning is a concept that has received immense attention from the academic and scientific communities. There is a huge volume of literature that examines this concept. Essentially, operant conditioning is concerned with promoting or discouraging behaviors using stimuli and outcomes. Operant conditioning is based on the observation that behaviors which lead to negative outcomes are usually abandoned. On the other hand, an individual is likely to repeat a behavior that yields positive outcomes. In the section below, summaries of scholarly articles that shed light on operant conditioning is offered.
Prsa, M., Galinanes, G. L. & Huber, D. (2017). Rapid Integration of Artificial Sensory Feedback During Operant Conditioning of Motor Cortex Neurons.
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In this article, Prsa and his colleagues focus on the neurological underpinnings of operant conditioning. The article details the results of a study where Prsa and his team set out to determine if the operant conditioning of the cortical neurons results in artificial feedback. The primary purpose of the study was to determine if the behavior resulting from operant conditioning is confined to the neuron that is undergoing conditioning. They did determine that this is indeed the case. Through their study, Prsa and his team are able to establish that individual neurons serve functional purposes in learning.
Thompson, A. K., Pomerantz, F. R. & Wolpaw, J. R. (2013). Operant Conditioning of a Spinal Reflex can Improve Locomotion after Spinal Cord Injury in Humans. Journal of Neuroscience, 33 (6), 2365-2375.
Thompson and his team set out to investigate the impact that conditioning has on the locomotion and general wellbeing of individuals who have sustained spinal code injuries. They noted that after sessions involving the implementation of operant conditioning protocols, those with these injuries reported improvements in locomotion. On the other hand, those in the control group did not witness any improvement. This is clear evidence that operant conditioning can improve the experience of individuals with spinal code injuries. Thompson and his team add that the operant conditioning protocols also allowed the participants to experience improved sleep. Their study suggests that in addition to facilitating learned locomotion, operant conditioning also presents additional benefits such as improved sleep.
Adelson, R. (2004). One Fundamental Learning Process. Monitor on Psychology, 35 (3), 20.
Operant conditioning is the main focus of this article. Adelson shares insights on how humans and other animals develop certain behaviors. She notes that learning allows species to “adapt and endure”. This suggests that operant conditioning is a useful tool for enabling organisms to respond to the changes in their environment. Adelson also notes that operant conditioning relies on reinforcers to encourage or discourage certain behaviors. She offers the example of animals which press levers in exchange for food. In this example, the food is the reinforcer while pressing the lever is the behavior that the animals acquire. Overall, this article is insightful as it sheds light on a vital learning process.
Price, R. B., Greven, I. M., Siegle, G. J., Koster, E. H. W. & De Raedt, R. (2016). A Novel Attention Training Paradigm Based on Operant Conditioning of Eye Gaze: Preliminary Findings. Emotion, 16 (1), 110-116.
Price and his colleagues aim to develop solutions for those who grapple such conditions as chronic mood disorders. They claim that operant conditioning can be used to help these individuals. To support this claim, they conducted a study in which they instructed the participants to direct their attention towards happy faces. Through this eye-gaze intervention, they hoped to establish the role that operant conditioning plays in shaping the moods of the participants. They conclude that using the eye-gaze protocol, it is possible to minimize the stress that results from negative moods. They call on medical researchers to use operant conditioning as they develop approaches for combating such negative experiences as stress and negative moods.
Lansade, L. & Calandreau, L. (2018). A Conditioned Reinforcer did not Help Maintain an Operant Conditioning in the Absence of a Primary Reinforcer in Horses. Behavioral Processes, 146, 61-63.
In this article, Lansade and Calandreau detail how they conducted a very interesting study. They sought to determine if auditory stimuli are as effective as such incentives as food in shaping the behavior of horses. Instead of providing the horses with food whenever they touched a cone, the researchers simply said “good”. The researchers had hoped that this auditory signal would inspire a similar response as providing the horses with food. They observed that simply saying “good” was not enough to shape the behavior of the horses. They conclude that some stimuli are more effective than others in shaping behavior. The key takeaway from this study is the need for caution when selecting the stimulus to use in operant conditioning.
Debeer, E., Raes, F., Williams, J. M. G., Craeynest, M. & Hermans, D. (2014). Operant Conditioning of Autobiographical Memory Retrieval. Memory, 22 (3), 171-183.
Debeer and her team penned this article that focuses on how memory retrieval can be subjected to operant control. They carried out a study where the participants were required to recollect memories from their past. The participants were then punished based on how specific the memory that they retrieved was. The researchers observed that the participants who suffered punishment for retrieving nonspecific memories retrieved more specific memories. This suggests that the punishment discouraged these participants from recollecting nonspecific memories. The main conclusion from this study is that it is indeed possible to apply operant conditioning to the retrieval of autobiographical memories.
Risen, J. L. (2016). Believing what we do not Believe: Acquiescence to Superstitious Beliefs and Other Powerful Intuitions. Psychological Review, 123 (2), 182-207.
In this article, Risen offers a review of the factors that shape the beliefs that individuals hold. She gives particular focus to the forces that compel individuals to hold superstitious beliefs. She wonders why individuals are superstitious despite understanding full well that their superstitious beliefs are baseless. Risen offers operant conditioning as an explanation for why even intelligent individuals hold superstitious beliefs. Reinforcers convince individuals that the baseless superstitions that they hold are indeed sound. Essentially, Risen highlights the impact that operant conditioning has on belief systems. She suggests that people will hold baseless beliefs provided these beliefs are associated with some positive outcomes.
