Adolescence is a period when many teenagers start experimenting with drugs. Substance use during this period is related to adverse social, mental health, and physical outcomes later in life (Bechtold et al., 2015). Statistics also show worrying rates of substance use among teenagers. For instance, Miech et al. (2016) through a nationwide survey determined that nearly 10 percent of youths in eighth grade use alcohol, 5 percent engaged in binge drinking, and 7 percent engaged in marijuana use. According to Van Ryzin and Dishion (2014), early substance use among teenagers predicts continued use in the future including substance dependence during early adulthood. Research shows that teenagers initiate long term substance use behaviors early in their lives in which most of them start experimenting with different drugs from the age of 15 (Manoj Sharma, 2015). Based on a survey of substance use among adolescents Manoj Sharma (2015) found that while teenagers know the adverse effects of drugs on their lives, they use them anyway to relieve themselves from issues such as stress.
Other studies have demonstrated the relationship between family structure and adolescent substance use outcomes (Manoj Sharma, 2015). Positive family settings have been found to protect teenagers against different adjustment issues, including early engagement in substance use (Botzet et al., 2019). Factors found to be related to adolescent substance use include family structure, the quality of parental monitoring, parental support, and family cohesion (Kung & Farrell, 2000). Studies also show that teenagers residing in two-parent families have a reduced risk for substance use compared to those in single-parent families (Kung & Farrell, 2000). Two-parent households appear to offer a protective mechanism that helps in preventing teenage substance use. It is therefore vital to understand the factors that contribute to the initiation of substance use among adolescents to help in identifying prevention measures.
Delegate your assignment to our experts and they will do the rest.
Given the escalating issue of substance use among teenagers, the current study focuses on determining the parental factors that influence substance use among teenagers. The study focuses specifically on single-parent households and two-parent households to determine adolescents from which household engage in more substance use. The current study hypothesizes that the family significantly influences the tendency of adolescents to abuse drugs. The study further hypothesizes that adolescents from single-parent households are at greater risk of abusing drugs than adolescents from two-parent households.
The study will be organized as follows. The first part will offer the background to the topic from the identified sources including the introduction, the study rationale, and the significance of the study, the research question and the study hypothesis. The second part will be a literature review that will focus on examining the existing studies about the topic to establish the theoretical basis of the study. The third part will highlight the study methodology including study design, procedure, and data analysis. The fourth part will present the results and the discussion of the results to answer the research question and confirm the study hypothesis. The fifth part will offer a conclusion that includes recommendations for future study and on how parents can positively influence adolescents to prevent early drug use among teenagers. The last part will document all the sources used in the study.
Literature Review
Family Structure
Two-parent family versus Single family
Unique family structure is related to substance use behaviors among adolescents. For example, research exploring the impact of family structure on problem behaviors among adolescents found differences in these behaviors based on single-parent families compared to two-parent families. Lonczak et al. (2007) evaluated the family structure and substance use among adolescents and found that teenagers from two-parent households had a reduced risk for substance use compared to teenagers from a single-parent household. Jablonska and Lindberg (2007) also found similar results among ninth-grade children.
Hemovich and Crano (2009) also explored the role of family composition and other factors on early initiation of substance use among teenagers. The study obtained data from 4,173 teenagers and measured different intrapersonal, social, and parental variables. The results demonstrated that teenagers residing in two-parent families had a low likelihood of using drugs than teenagers from other types of households. Teenagers from single-father families had a high substance usage rate compared to teenagers from single-mother families. The study results also showed that parent-child bonds and parental warmth were not statistically different between the different family structures. Teenagers residing in single-parent households had more friends with an inclination towards substance use and reduced participation in organized activities compared to teenagers from two-parent households.
Single mother families versus Single father families
Besides the difference between two-parent families and single-parent households, research shows differences within types of single-parent households. For instance, Jablonska and Lindberg (2007) examined ninth-grade children and established that teenagers residing with a single mother had a reduced risk for substance use behaviors compared with teenagers residing with single fathers. Additionally, Hemovich and Crano (2009) explored the differences in single father versus single-mother families through a diverse sample of 8th to 12th-grade children. The study found that teenagers residing with single mothers had a reduced probability of reporting substance use compared with teenagers residing with single fathers. Hemovich and Crano (2009) also revealed that gender was a key variable that must be considered when exploring family structure. Based on their study, Hemovich and Crano (2009) showed that males used drugs more than females. Girls from single-father families were also found to use drugs more compared with girls from single-mother families. According to Osborne, Berger and Magnuson (2012) mothers have a high probability of assuming the role of both primary breadwinner and primary caregiver compared with fathers when parents transform to being single parents. While fathers can be single parents, their shift to be being both primary caregiver and breadwinner is more challenging that for single mothers. The reason for this is that fathers from two-parent families usually work for long hours than mothers and mothers offer more caregiving compared to fathers. When mothers assume the roles of both caregiver and breadwinner, fathers take a long time to transform or assume extra roles, which leads to teenagers initiating early problem behavior when living with single fathers compared with single mothers.
While there is a correlation between family structure and teenage substance use, some studies have not found any correlation between family composition and substance use (Keller et al., 2002). Substance use outcomes are based on the stability and atmosphere of the family settings instead of the individual family structure. Some of the factors in the family settings that influence substance use among teenagers include interactions between children and parents, the quality of the relationship between parents and teenagers, parental monitoring, parental styles, parental drug use, socioeconomic status of the family, and parental control among others.
Parental Monitoring
Schofield, Conger and Robins (2015) examined interactions between parents and teenagers to measure the extent and effects of parental monitoring through a focus on Latino families to understand if cultural factors influence parenting. For the study, researchers examined children in 5th grade and later in 7th grade. The results of the study demonstrated that the selected age range represented the baseline for drug use and the period when most parents may fail to understand their children’s behaviors if they failed to establish a strong foundation. Based on the study, preadolescence and early adolescence are the best time to engage with children through collaboration and communication to establish a strong relationship with them. The study included 675 children in which the researchers observed fathers and mothers separately during their interactions with children. Based on the study, factors such as spending time with deviant peers or actively searching for colleagues to support drug abuse increase the probability of drug use among teenagers. In these circumstances, parents who understand the situation their children are going through can reduce the effect of both factors (Schofield et al., 2015). Parents do not need to know much or be actively involved in their children’s lives to influence positive adolescent drug use outcomes.
Lam, McHale and Crouter (2014) also state that early adolescent is also the time when teenagers spend more time with colleagues and parental monitoring reduces. The increased time spend with colleagues and reduced parental monitoring increases the risk of substance use among teenagers (Lam et al., 2014). While teenagers influence each other’s actions during the early teenage years, parental influence is still significant because adolescent reported parental monitoring moderate peer influence on substance use (Light et al., 2013). A vital element of parental monitoring is the quality of the relationship between parents and children such as honest and regular communication (Daspe et al., 2018). Wang et al. (2013) categorized parental monitoring into three groups including parental knowledge, adolescent disclosure, and parental rules. The study established that open communication between parents and teenagers and regulations regarding restriction led to reduced substance use among teens while low levels of monitoring and communication during early teenage years led to increased substance use among adolescents.
Parents who are more aware of the behaviors and the whereabouts of their children positively influence adolescent substance use outcomes (Fosco et al., 2012). Adolescents in families with inadequate parent-child relationship consider their parents as being unsupportive, unaffectionate, rejecting, hostile, unresponsive, or insensitive (Seiffge-Krenke, Overbeek & Vermulst, 2010). These adverse experiences lead to negative feelings or maladaptive coping approaches including substance use (Goossens et al., 2012). Besides, parental monitoring differs based on the family structure as teenagers from different family compositions receive different parental monitoring levels. For example, studies have found single-mother families to have reduced parental monitoring levels compared to teenagers from two-parent families who receive more levels of parental monitoring (Zeiders, Roosa, & Tein, 2011). Studies suggest that parental monitoring is more effective in two-parent families compared with single-parent families (Zeiders et al., 2011). Additionally, single parents do not spend adequate time with their children compared to two-parent families to sufficiently monitor the activities of their children (Zeiders et al., 2011). The more time that children spend with their peers instead of their parents may explain the relationship between single-parent households and substance use among adolescents.
Parent-Adolescent Relationship
Quality of Parent-Adolescent Relationship
The quality of the relationship between parents and adolescents influence substance use among teenagers. The quality of this relationship refers to the level of closeness, open communication, and parent-adolescent conflict since these elements indicate the interaction patterns that occur traditionally between parents and teenagers. During early teen years, adolescents face issues such as the need to be independent of parents and identity development, which can be a difficult time for a family due to conflicts that emerge when teenagers attempt to negotiate for their autonomy (Daspe et al., 2018).
Closeness and Communication
Studies, however, found that positive parent-adolescent relationships that focus on closeness and open communication reduce the probability of substance use among teenagers (Tharp & Noonan, 2011). Parental closeness significantly contributes to use or failure to use drugs among adolescents. Hoeve et al. (2007) found a significant connection between delinquency among children and their closeness to their parents including positive parenting and parental involvement. The level of attachment of children to parents effectively indicates whether or not children will start using drugs. The relationship between a father and a teenager was also found to significantly contribute to whether or not teenagers used drugs (Fosco et al., 2012). The increased closeness between fathers and their children is related to reduced rate of bad behaviors including substance use over time. Teenagers who have emotionally detached parents fail to get the required closeness or emotional support, which leads to elevated substance use (Chaplin et al., 2012). The lack of closeness causes adolescents to become unstable emotionally and lonely over time, which increases their substance use.
Teenagers who have close parents obtain the required emotional support and do not engage in substance use, which suggests that children abuse drugs to deal with the lack of parental emotional support when they need the support the most. Other studies show the importance of maternal parenting practices including closeness and its effect on substance use among teenagers (Shorey et al., 2013). According to this study, a mother plays a significant role in the life of teenagers by acting as an emotional figure that a teenager turns to when seeking assistance. Closeness with a mother is found to be more important than the mother’s parental monitoring because teenagers who felt detached from their mothers engaged in more substance use to deal with the emotional gap left in their lives. Based on socialization models, two-parent families are more likely to have access to adequate interpersonal and personal resources to develop close relationships with children compared to single-parent families. Other factors such as monitoring, parental warmth, and parent-teenager communication, however, also play a role and may reduce the effect of family structure on subsequent substance use among the youth (Brown & Rinelli, 2010).
Parental Drug Use
Another contributing factor to adolescence substance use is parental drug abuse. Parents who use drugs demonstrate the acceptance of the use of those drugs to young teenagers. Additionally, parental substance use increases the presence of drugs to teenagers, which may influence early teen substance use that may continue later (Brook et al., 2010). Parental substance use was found to be a more influential factor that affects the substance use among children (Brook et al., 2010). Based on the social learning theory, it was found that adolescents modelled the behavior of their parents’ substance use, particularly in situations where the parent-child relationship was good. Parental substance use is also associated with inadequate parent-teenage relationship and monitoring, which potentiates drug use among adolescents. The correlation between parental substance use and teenager involvement in drugs is based on the gender of the parent. The effect of drug use among fathers is less important on the subsequent involvement of children in substance use compared to the effects of drug use among mothers (Kung & Farrell, 2000). Parents using drugs mostly have an underlying mental issue that reduces their ability to demonstrate adequate child-raising techniques and respond to the needs of their children. Parental behaviors can thus engender mental issues for children (Lipari & Van Horn, 2017). Adolescents raised in households of parents using drugs may be left on their own without numerous repercussions to their inappropriate behaviors or they may not have adequate independence to engage in independent decision making. Children raised in such homes lack social and emotional support to their parents. The lack of emotional support compels adolescents to engage in substance use as a way of dealing with their issues and the lack of parental control offers them with ways of engaging in drug use (Lipari & Van Horn, 2017).
Parenting Styles
Studies have also found parenting styles to be contributing to adolescent drug use. For instance, Becoña et al. (2015) found that authoritative parenting style had positive outcomes about teenage substance use while neglectful parenting had an adverse outcome. Authoritative parenting is found to be related to less substance use among teenagers (Becoña et al., 2015). Teenagers of authoritarian parents use drugs more than teenagers of authoritative parents, even though some researchers did not find any difference (Adalbjarnardottir & Hafsteinsson, 2003). Concerning the permissive parenting style, some studies demonstrate that this style is related to increased substance use while others show an inverse relationship (Adalbjarnardottir & Hafsteinsson, 2003). The consistent relationship between increased substance uses was found among neglectful parents.
Parental Control
Behavioral Control
Ecological models show a close association between parental control and substance use among adolescents. The parental control can be behavioral or psychological (Bean, Barber & Crane, 2006). Behavioral control includes rules and restrictions that parents establish to control the behaviors of their children. Examples of these rules and restrictions include discipline setting, expectation, monitoring, and the knowledge of parents about their children (Kung & Farrell, 2000). Parental behavioral control communicates behavioral expectations to teenagers and can protect them from engaging in substance use (Kincaid et al., 2010). Behavioral control reduces the probability of adolescents being exposed to risky settings and helps adolescents in managing their impulsive action, which hinders teenage substance use (Shek, 2005). Parents who exercise effective behavioral control positively influence adolescent substance use outcomes.
Psychological Control
Parental psychological control includes parental manipulation or interference of the thoughts, feelings, and emotions of their children through withdrawing love, inducing guilt, shaming, manipulating emotional security, or discounting the perspective of children (Bean et al., 2006). Psychological control conveys unacceptable views regarding adolescent feelings, emotions, or thoughts. Increased psychological control among parents undermines adolescent autonomy attempts and efficacy, which results in unhealthy adjustment and self-concept (Costa et al., 2018). In turn, this increases the adolescent susceptibility to developing risky behaviors such as substance use (Romm & Metzger, 2018). Low-income single-parent families experience increased economic burden that negates the ability of the parent to supervise and monitor the activities that their children engage in (Carlson, 2006). According to Hemovich and Crano (2009) single-parent households, particularly single-mother households, mostly have less income compared to other families in which the low income disrupts normal support and supervision levels for these households and increases the risk of drug use among teenagers.
These studies show that family structure does not individually influence drug use among adolescents. The family setting and atmosphere including factors such as parental monitoring, the socioeconomic structure, parent-child relationship, and parental involvement in the lives of adolescents are the main explanatory factors that demonstrate the effect of family structure on substance use among teenagers. It is vital examine how these explanatory variables specifically influence the use or failure to use drugs among adolescents.
Methodology
Study Design
The research methodology will encompass qualitative research technique with a focus on systematic literature review in which data will be collected from secondary and primary sources. These sources include government statistics on substance abuse and peer-reviewed research journals that have examined the issue of parental influence on adolescent substance use. Only data from these sources will be used in the present study.
Procedure
Data collection will focus on searching for published sources using various search strategies on various research databases including NCBI, EBSCO, ERIC, PubMed, ScienceDirect, and JSTOR. The search terms to be used include parental influence on substance use, family structure and adolescent drug use, single-family versus two-parent family and adolescent drug use, single-family and adolescent drug use, two-parent family and adolescent drug use, and adolescent substance use statistics. Only recent sources will be considered, which will be achieved by limiting the search to between 2003 and 2020. Only sources with a methodology, data analysis, results, and discussion sections in addition to other sections will be considered. After obtaining the required sources, the research process will involve reading through the sources to seek specific information regarding the use of drugs and the drug use variations among adolescents from different family structures with a specific focus on single families and two-parent families.
The target population will be 11 to 17-year-old youths and the drugs to be examined include alcohol and other drugs such as cannabis and amphetamines. Explanatory variables in the study will include family structure, parent-child associations, time spent with children, and parental monitoring.
The study will also exclude data from sources such as books and documents that lack updated information and cases on the topic.
Testing the relevance of retrieved sources
The relevant sources will be evaluated through a three step process including assessing them against the inclusion criteria, exclusion criteria, and the presence of all sections in a research paper including methodology, data analysis, findings, discussion, and conclusion. The relevant final articles will be tabulated with a summary of their main information concerning the topic.
Data analysis
The relevant information will be highlighted and documented together with the sources to ensure easy access to the information during data analysis. The data analysis will involve a comparison of the information from the different sources through identifying similarities and differences and the underlying explanations for the differences or similarities. The study will only consider relevant information that is available in more than two sources. The information demonstrating the inability of single parents to meet all parental roles will be used to confirm the study hypothesis.
Research Outcome
The research will be beneficial to social development stakeholders because it will highlight the factors that compel adolescents from single parent families to engage in early drug use more than adolescents from two-parent families. It will also present the challenges that single parent families face when raising children, which will be useful in identifying potential solutions and prevention measures to protect the youth from engaging in drug abuse.
References
Adalbjarnardottir, S., & Hafsteinsson, L. G. (2003). Adolescents’ Perceived Parenting Styles and Their Substance Use: Concurrent and Longitudinal Analyses. Journal of Research on Adolescence , 11 (4), 401–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/1532-7795.00018
Carlson, M. J. (2006). Family Structure, Father Involvement, and Adolescent Behavioral Outcomes. Journal of Marriage and Family , 68 (1), 137–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2006.00239.x
Chaplin, T. M., Sinha, R., Simmons, J. A., Healy, S. M., Mayes, L. C., Hommer, R. E., & Crowley, M. J. (2012). Parent–adolescent conflict interactions and adolescent alcohol use. Addictive Behaviors , 37 (5), 605–612. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.01.004
Costa, S., Gugliandolo, M. C., Barberis, N., Cuzzocrea, F., & Liga, F. (2018). Antecedents and consequences of parental psychological control and autonomy support: The role of psychological basic needs. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 36 (4), 1168–1189. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407518756778
Bean, R. A., Barber, B. K., & Crane, D. R. (2006). Parental Support, Behavioral Control, and Psychological Control Among African American Youth. Journal of Family Issues , 27 (10), 1335–1355. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513x06289649
Bechtold, J., Simpson, T., White, H. R., & Pardini, D. (2015). Chronic adolescent marijuana use as a risk factor for physical and mental health problems in young adult men. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors , 29 (3), 552–563. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000103
Becoña, E., Martínez, Ú., Calafat, A., Juan, M., Fernández-Hermida, J. R., & Secades-Villa, R. (2011). Parental styles and drug use: A review. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy , 19 (1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.3109/09687637.2011.631060
Botzet, A. M., Dittel, C., Birkeland, R., Lee, S., Grabowski, J., & Winters, K. C. (2019). Parents as interventionists: Addressing adolescent substance use. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment , 99 , 124–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2019.01.015
Brook, J. S., Balka, E. B., Crossman, A. M., Dermatis, H., Galanter, M., & Brook, D. W. (2010). The Relationship between Parental Alcohol Use, Early and Late Adolescent Alcohol Use, and Young Adult Psychological Symptoms: A Longitudinal Study. The American Journal on Addictions , 19 (6), 534–542. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1521-0391.2010.00083.x
Brown, S. L., & Rinelli, L. N. (2010). Family Structure, Family Processes, and Adolescent Smoking and Drinking. Journal of Research on Adolescence , 20 (2), 259–273. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00636.x
Daspe, M., Arbel, R., Ramos, M. C., Shapiro, L. A. S., & Margolin, G. (2018). Deviant Peers and Adolescent Risky Behaviors: The Protective Effect of Nonverbal Display of Parental Warmth. Journal of Research on Adolescence , 29 (4), 863–878. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12418
Fosco, G. M., Stormshak, E. A., Dishion, T. J., & Winter, C. E. (2012). Family Relationships and Parental Monitoring During Middle School as Predictors of Early Adolescent Problem Behavior. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology , 41 (2), 202–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2012.651989
Goossens, L., Braet, C., Van Durme, K., Decaluwé, V., & Bosmans, G. (2012). The Parent–Child Relationship as Predictor of Eating Pathology and Weight Gain in Preadolescents. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology , 41 (4), 445–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2012.660690
Hemovich, V., & Crano, W. D. (2009). Family Structure and Adolescent Drug Use: An Exploration of Single-Parent Families. Substance Use & Misuse , 44 (14), 2099–2113. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826080902858375
Hoeve, M., Blokland, A., Dubas, J. S., Loeber, R., Gerris, J. R. M., & van der Laan, P. H. (2007). Trajectories of Delinquency and Parenting Styles. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 36 (2), 223–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9172-x
Jablonska, B., & Lindberg, L. (2007). Risk behaviours, victimisation and mental distress among adolescents in different family structures. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology , 42 (8), 656–663. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-007-0210-3
Keller, T. E., Catalano, R. F., Haggerty, K. P., & Fleming, C. B. (2002). Parent Figure Transitions and Delinquencyand Drug Use Among Early Adolescent Children of Substance Abusers. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse , 28 (3), 399–427. https://doi.org/10.1081/ada-120006734
Kincaid, C., Jones, D. J., Cuellar, J., & Gonzalez, M. (2010). Psychological Control Associated with Youth Adjustment and Risky Behavior in African American Single Mother Families. Journal of Child and Family Studies , 20 (1), 102–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-010-9383-6
Kung, E. M., & Farrell, A. D. (2000). The role of parents and peers in early adolescent substance use: An examination of mediating and moderating effects. Journal of Child and Family studies , 9 (4), 509-528.
Lam, C. B., McHale, S. M., & Crouter, A. C. (2014). Time With Peers From Middle Childhood to Late Adolescence: Developmental Course and Adjustment Correlates. Child Development , 85 (4), 1677–1693. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12235
Light, J. M., Greenan, C. C., Rusby, J. C., Nies, K. M., & Snijders, T. A. B. (2013). Onset to First Alcohol Use in Early Adolescence: A Network Diffusion Model. Journal of Research on Adolescence , 23 (3), 487–499. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12064
Lipari, R. N., & Van Horn, S. L. (2017). Children living with parents who have a substance use disorder. In The CBHSQ Report . Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US).
Lonczak, H. S., Fernandez, A., Austin, L., Marlatt, G. A., & Donovan, D. M. (2007). Family structure and substance use among American Indian youth: A preliminary study. Families, Systems, & Health , 25 (1), 10–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/1091-7527.25.1.10
Manoj Sharma, M. B. B. S. (2015). Substance Abuse in Adolescents: Implications for Research and Practice. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education , 59 (1), 3.
Miech, R. A., Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2016). Monitoring the Future National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2015 :Volume I, Secondary school students. In Institute of Social Research . http://monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-vol1_2015.pdf .
Osborne, C., Berger, L. M., & Magnuson, K. (2012). Family Structure Transitions and Changes in Maternal Resources and Well-being. Demography , 49 (1), 23–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-011-0080-x
Romm, K. F., & Metzger, A. (2018). Parental Psychological Control and Adolescent Problem Behaviors: The Role of Depressive Symptoms. Journal of Child and Family Studies , 27 (7), 2206–2216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1064-x
Schofield, T. J., Conger, R. D., & Robins, R. W. (2015). Early adolescent substance use in Mexican origin families: Peer selection, peer influence, and parental monitoring. Drug and Alcohol Dependence , 157 , 129–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.10.020
Seiffge-Krenke, I., Overbeek, G., & Vermulst, A. (2010). Parent–child relationship trajectories during adolescence: Longitudinal associations with romantic outcomes in emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescence , 33 (1), 159–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.04.001
Shek, D. T. L. (2005). Paternal and maternal influences on the psychological well-being, substance abuse, and delinquency of Chinese adolescents experiencing economic disadvantage. Journal of Clinical Psychology , 61 (3), 219–234. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20057
Shorey, R. C., Fite, P. J., Elkins, S. R., Frissell, K. C., Tortolero, S. R., Stuart, G. L., & Temple, J. R. (2013). The association between problematic parental substance use and adolescent substance use in an ethnically diverse sample of 9th and 10th graders. The journal of primary prevention , 34 (6), 381-393.
Tharp, A. T., & Noonan, R. K. (2011). Associations Between Three Characteristics of Parent–Youth Relationships, Youth Substance Use, and Dating Attitudes. Health Promotion Practice , 13 (4), 515–523. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839910386220
Van Ryzin, M. J., & Dishion, T. J. (2014). Adolescent deviant peer clustering as an amplifying mechanism underlying the progression from early substance use to late adolescent dependence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 55 (10), 1153-1161.
Wang, B., Stanton, B., Li, X., Cottrell, L., Deveaux, L., & Kaljee, L. (2013). The influence of parental monitoring and parent–adolescent communication on Bahamian adolescent risk involvement: A three-year longitudinal examination. Social Science & Medicine , 97 , 161–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.08.013
Zeiders, K. H., Roosa, M. W., & Tein, J.-Y. (2011). Family Structure and Family Processes in Mexican-American Families. Family Process , 50 (1), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1545-5300.2010.01347.x
