Peer or group membership is a powerful socializing experience and teenagers change their opinions, perceptions, and behavior to be consistent with the expectations. Social influences are associated with many adolescent behaviors including, substance abuse, diet, medication taking, and diet. Prior research findings confirm that susceptibility to peer influence is high during the early years of adolescence and becomes higher at the age of fourteen years in which it starts declining. This present study assesses the developmental change and age differences in resistance to peer influence through analysis of findings from research in this particular field. This paper reviews and summarizes finding on the effects of peer group influences on aggressive behaviors, adolescent smoking, and risk-taking attitudes. The growth of the adolescent's control system is important in exercising control and self-regulation in groups that are responsible for emotionally arousing situations. The study leads to the conclusion that most of them are incapable of standing up for what they believe in and thus incapable of resisting pressures from their age groups.
Literature Review
Hypothesis
It is important to note that age differences and developmental changes are important factors in resisting peer influence in smoking, aggressiveness, and risk-taking behaviors. The growth of the adolescent's control system is critical in exercising self-regulation and control in the emotionally arousing occasions with their peers.
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Prediction
Teenagers tend to be particularly susceptible to group influences given the importance of peer groups and school in a teen's life as well as their developmental stage. Social influences play a significant role in a wide range of adolescents' behaviors such as sexual intercourse, diet, substance abuse, medication taking, and smoking. It is necessary to prevent the initiation of adolescents to various experimental behaviors such as smoking, which could result in habituation, which is associated with various negative outcomes. Adolescents are likely to engage in certain behaviors such as substance abuse as the other group members provide an opportunity, access, and reinforcement for these negative behaviors.
Outcome Summaries
Age and Peer Pressure
Peer pressure is an issue that is highly associated with teenagers' risk-taking behaviors such as substance abuse, delinquency, and reckless driving. Steinberg and Monahan's (2007) study insinuates that there exist no doubts concerning peers being the key players in others' risky behaviors. They also confirm that peer influence is very strong in the teenage years than in adulthood. Age is a key factor during exposure to peers such that the risk-taking behaviors tend to double among the middle adolescents, does not affect at all among adults, and increases risky attitudes by 50% among the college graduates (Steinberg & Monahan, 2007). Therefore, as age advances, other people or conformity to a certain group does not influence risk-taking behaviors.
The engagement in risky behaviors among adolescents is associated with the desire to adapt to the values, interests, and styles of their friends. The pressure to conform to the group intensifies as teens use social influence to govern and regulate every group member's behavior to create uniformity and foster solidarity within their group members to develop and maintain a group identity that differentiates them from other students. According to Steinberg and Monahan (2007), the normative type of regulation among the adolescents tends to be a powerful force during the middle adolescent ages in which more than 85% of the American youths report to be members in at least a member in one particular peer group. Therefore, teenagers are likely to engage in certain behaviors such as reckless driving and smoking as a way of portraying uniformity and solidarity in a particular peer group.
Adolescents are likely to alter their behaviors to fit into certain groups. Steinberg and Monahan (2007) explain that adolescents are likely to engage in certain behaviors as they care more about what their friends would think of them if they are behaved differently, thus engaging in misbehaviors to avoid rejection from the crowd. According to Albert et al. (2013), adolescents tend to commit delinquent acts when they are in groups while adults offend alone. The study by Albert et al. (2013) in which participants of varied ages played a chicken game, led to the conclusion that adolescents in their early ages highly engaged in risky behaviors while the people at late adolescents showed no difference in risk-taking behaviors, when in groups and when playing alone. Simons-Morton and Farhat (2010) define social influence as the effect others have on an individual or a group’s behavior and attitudes. Therefore peer influence tends to be higher at the preadolescent, adolescent stage, and minimal at young adulthood.
At the early adolescent ages, conformity to peer pressure tends to be higher compared to the late ages. Steinberg and Monahan (2007) explain that the heightened conformity during the early ages of an adolescent can be attributed to some sort of an emotional way station, whereby the teen is struggling to be autonomous from his or her parents. In most cases, adolescents tend to become emotionally autonomous from their guardians before they are emotionally ready to take up the new roles, thus turning to their peers to take part in their decisions. Evidence exists confirming that brain systems responsible for processing social information undergo remodeling during the puberty stage making teens highly aware and attentive to their peer’s opinions (Steinberg and Monahan, 2007). Therefore, it is evident that conformity to peer pressure tends to be higher during early and middle adolescents than in the later ages of the adolescent.
Peer Pressure and Substance Abuse
Smoking tends to increase dramatically during adolescence. Simons-Morton and Farhat (2010) assert that early initiation into smoking increases the chances of habituation which is associated with various negative effects. Social influences play a significant role in adolescent smoking. Simons-Morton and Farhat (2010) highlight that social influences are significant in various health behaviors, such as diet, medication taking, substance abuse, and sexual intercourse. Adolescents are susceptible to social influences due to the importance of school, their developmental age, and the significance of peer groups in an adolescent's life (Tome et al., 2012). Smoking and other substance abuse are common among adolescents as other teens avail the drugs, reinforce the behavior and provide an opportunity that may lack in other areas.
Peer influence is the main factor contributing to teens' heightened tendency to engage in substance abuse and other risky behaviors. Tome et al. (2012) explain the concept of peer membership as a powerful socializing experience in which people change their opinions, perceptions, and behavior to be consistent with the norms in the group. The peer group affiliations tend to become very influential and crucial at the adolescent stage. Being a part of a club, activity, school, and grade in which people share similar interests including drugs, music avails great benefits of identity, friendship, and acceptance. In most cases, group members have common behaviors and attitudes, which is common among adolescents.
Substance abuse is one of the factors that bring friends together. Simon-Morton and Farhat (2010) assert that substance abuse is one of the factors that adolescents have to agree on, which also brings with it group homogeneity. In most cases, adolescents undergo various social influences, which increases the likelihood of abusing drugs such as smoking. According to the social network theory, behaviors and attitudes tend to be shaped by the information that people share in the social system (Simon-Morton & Farhat, 2010). Therefore, substance abuse among adolescents develops from the continued observation and interaction with the behavior.
Susceptibility to peer influence varies by age, race proximity, and gender. Simon-Morton and Farhat (2010), explain that close relationships are responsible for providing primary social influence, while other cultural aspects such as media provide secondary influences. Close relationships tend to be highly influential to the teens as they are highly valued, persistent and emotional. People in close relationships highly interact, spending a lot of time together, in which a lot of time spent together avails opportunities for influence. Substance abuse among peers develops from observing other people in their social environment.
Subgroups and Adolescent Smoking
Peer influence on adolescent smoking depends on a variety of socio-demographic factors. Simon-Morton and Farhat (2010) assert that gender differences are well portrayed on the issue of peer smoking such that girls are highly influenced by their groups than the boys. Age is another factor that influences smoking among peers. For example, eleven-year-olds that had friends that smoke were more likely to become experimenters, intenders as well as regular smokers (Simon-Morton & Farhat, 2010). Therefore, smoking progression among adolescents aged 12 to 14 can predict a friend’s substance abuse.
The race is another demographic factor that came into play in the aspect of peers’ substance abuse. Simon-Morton and Farhat (2010) assert that African-American adolescents with friends that smoke was more likely to engage in the behavior than the groups with no such friends. Additionally, adolescents' influence, on the other hand, varied depending on other individual characteristics such as genetics, which influences one's exposure to the substance using friends. One's perceptions of personal harm due to smoking and competency skills are also variables that affect the rate at which people are influenced by others to engage in smoking and other substance abuse. Therefore, parents and schools should establish strong social bonds that can help in moderating peer influences on their children.
Methods
This study involved an internet search, in which, peer influence on adolescents’ bad behaviors and habits are examined from the previous studies. The research hoped to gather relevant information on socio-demographic factors that are likely to increase the likelihood of peer influence. The internet search gathered information on social relationships that are beneficial to the adolescents that need to be maintained to help in minimizing harmful influences on the peers. The internet search also assessed peer influences on aggressiveness, smoking, substance abuse and engagement in other risky behaviors. Nonetheless, the search also sought to show that the growth of the teens' control system is necessary for minimizing the rates at which their peers lure them into various malpractices.
Participants
Susceptibility to peer pressure tends to change during adolescence. Thus, studies with a sample size consisting of people between the ages of 11 to 15 years were included in the study. Boys were the main target in the study, as gender is one of the key players in peer influences. Studies that involved both the systematic and random sampling techniques are involved in the research.
Measures
Some of the tools used in gathering important information concerning peer influence in the previous studies include Peer Pressure Scale, Aggression Questionnaire, Self Esteem Scale, and Automatic Thoughts Scale. Other questionnaires that were used in the various studies are Depression Scale for Children and Adolescents, The Experiences in Close Relationship Inventory, and Perception Profile for Adolescents.
Experiments
This work is a study of peer group influence on adolescents’ bad behaviors and habits. Peer preferences in using illicit substances, aggressive behavior, adopting criminal behaviors, accepting violence, irresponsible sexual behavior and irresponsible use of language are assessed. The independent variable in this study is peer pressure. While the dependent variable is bad behavior and habits such as the use of illicit substances and engagement in irresponsible sexual behaviors that result due to peer influence. The sample involved in the research is of school-aged boys in grades 6, 7 and 8, with an average age of 14 years old.
Procedures
Research-related activities that were undertaken to help in achieving the objectives and avail possible solutions to the study are many. For example, a self-report measurement was one of the approaches employed in gathering information concerning teenagers and peer influence. Using the self-report measurement, boys between the age of 11 and 15 years availed information of how peer influence affected their behaviors. These adolescents answered questionnaires, which hoped to gather information on the likelihood of these people to seek guidance and advice from their peers. Some of the questions involved in this approach include, how often do you seek advice from your peers on using illicit substances? Do you copy what your friends do? How often do you engage in risky behaviors with your peers? Do you feel left out when your peers participate in a certain project in which you are left out? Are you an aggressive person? Participants were required to answer their questions alone and send the answers through email.
Another experiment used in gathering information involved boys between the age of 11 to 15 years in a game that challenges the driver to advance a vehicle without crashing it into a war that emerges abruptly in the course of driving. During the game, the peer context is altered, in which the groups’ participants are changed constantly from one to the whole group. Peer influences on adolescent risky behavior are also analyzed in criminal records and cases involving groups.
Results
Adolescent’s delinquent behavior is strongly predicted by the association with delinquent peers. Friendship choices are another factor that informs adolescents' and peers' influence such that risk-taking individuals are highly likely to be involved with others of their kind. Therefore, observational data such as crime statistics show that adolescents are more likely to commit criminal acts in groups unlike adults, who offend alone. In the experimental study, involving adolescents playing a risky taking driving, all people engaged in risky driving. However, preadolescents with the mean age of 14, when tested amid their peers they were twice likely to be involved in risky behaviors.
On the other hand, the self-reporting measurements also show that preadolescents are highly likely to engage in risky behaviors amid their peers. In making choices, the preadolescents were more likely to seek information from their peers when making choices. In the questions such as feelings of isolation, if one is left out of the group, boys with an average age of 14 years are highly affected. They are highly concerned developing group trust and homogeneity. Additionally, boys between the age of 11 to 15 years are likely to spend a lot of time with their peers in which they have a higher degree of happiness compared to adults and children. Therefore, adolescents tend to assign great priority to peers for their attitudes and behaviors.
Discussion of the Results
Social influence refers to the effect on groups or an individual's behavior. As humans develop slowly, people tend to be socialized over time by school, home, religious institutions, and community according to the existing social norms. On the other hand, social norms also affect group membership, social context, and social networks. Therefore, the reciprocal relationship between social structures and social norms is facilitated by both selection and socialization processes. Simons-Morton and Farhat (2010) define socialization as the tendency for people’s behaviors and norms to be influenced by the behaviors and the norms of one’s group. However, selection refers to the tendency of people to seek out friends that have similar behaviors and norms as them.
Humans are social beings that reside in neighborhoods, families, attend school, and belong to various religious denominations, in which most of the interactions occur. According to Simons-Morton and Farhat (2010), primary social influence mainly occurs in an individual's proximal social context, which can either be one's family or peer groups. Therefore, the information one gains from these social contexts guide them on acceptable behavior while training them on how to relate with the rest of the members. Additionally, social context avails opportunities for social interactions through the formation of the social network. Simons-Morton and Farhat (2010) define a social network as a map defining all the relevant ties between groups and individuals. Basing on the explanation of the social network, and its importance among the adolescents shows that teenagers are likely to engage in many risky behaviors as a group compared to the young and the elderly groups.
Teenagers and Social Peer Pressure
Peer influence is a concept about change, which means that peers' behaviors are likely to change through the experiences with other teens. According to Manzoni et al. (2011), adolescence is a stage in which people form their identities and integrate their personalities. Healthy youth development depends on how people view them and how they perceive themselves. Therefore, social groups act as a supplement to how an individual perceives himself or herself. Manzoni et al. (2011) assert that negative self-concept makes one attempt to escape self by adopting a variety of unhealthy behaviors. Manzoni et al. (2011) define self-esteem as one's appraisal of his or her worth. Self-concept and self-esteem are key players in peer influence.
An individual's development of self-esteem and self-concept depends on a variety of factors such as relationships and interactions with other important people such as teachers, parents, and peers. At the adolescent stage, the interactions with peers are highly important although guardians still play a crucial role. Manzoni et al. (2011) assert that peer groups set certain expectations, standards, and values that every member of their group has to adhere to. Peers at the early adolescent ages with the mean age of fourteen years are highly influenced by the attitudes and beliefs of their peers unlike adults, who are never influenced by significant others. Therefore, highly risky driving among adolescents is attributable to individuals who try to meet the standards and expectations of their peers.
Peer pressure on the aspect of aggressiveness is also highly visible among peers between the age of eleven and fourteen years. According to Manzoni et al. (2011), boys at the age of fourteen are likely to engage in aggressive behaviors due to their desire for friendships and low self-esteem. Yavuzer et al. (2014) define aggression as any form of behavior, which is intended to hurt other people. Theory by Bandura explains that children learn behavior through modeling and observing others. Additionally, aggressive behaviors can be learned through interaction with others, whereby there is peer isolation, low self-esteem, and peer rejection. Therefore, with the adolescents looking up to others for support and approval they tend to engage in various risky behaviors such as aggression, stealing, and substance abuse.
High risky behavior among adolescents can be a result of low capability to control impulse behavior compared to adults. Albet et al. (2013) explain age differences in control-related network dynamics that show adolescent immaturity in the functional integration of the neural signals that originate from the subcortical and cortical regions. Thus, the immature capacity in the functional integration among the adolescent plays a key role in the difficulties in evaluating affective, social, and cognitive factors important in a particular decision, especially when emotional and social considerations ought to be considered. Therefore, the increased peer pressure among adolescents can be attributed to the desire to fit in groups, cognitive immaturity, and lack of self-esteem.
References
Albert, D., Chein, J., & Steinberg, L. (2013). Peer influences on adolescent decision making. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. , 22 (2), 114-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721412471347 .
Manzoni, M., Lotar, M., & Ricijas, N. (2011). Peer pressure in adolescence - boundaries and possibilities . LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
Simons-Morton, B., & Simons-Morton, T. (2010). Recent findings on peer group influences on adolescent substance use. J Prim Prev. , 31 (4), 191-208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10935-010-0220-x .
Steinberg, L., & Monahan, K. (2007). Age differences in resistance to peer influence. Dev Psychol. , 43 (6), 1531-1543. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531 .
Tome, G., Matos, M., Simões, C., Camacho, I., Diniz, J., & Jorge, J. (2012). How can peer group influence the behavior of adolescents: Explanatory model. global journal of health science , 4 (2), 26-35. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v4n2p26
Yavuzer, Y., Karatas, Z., Civilidag, A., & Gundogdu, R. (2014). The role of peer pressure, automatic thoughts, and self-esteem on adolescents' aggression. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research , (54), 61-78.
