Erik Erikson’s theory (1959) of psychosocial development asserts that the psychological progression of an individual from infancy to adulthood is affected or influenced by factors that are external to the individual. Also, parents and the society in which people develop influence the overall psychosocial development. The theory supposes that individuals go through eight interconnected and overlapping stages that impact on their personality development (Erikson, 1993). During each of the stages, a person has a tendency to develop positive or negative characteristics depending on external factors, parents, and the society. Five stages lead to adolescent age of 18, while three lead to late adulthood. He maintains that crisis or conflicts occur in each stage between the psychological needs and social needs of an individual. Therefore, if these needs are unmet, negative behavior and expression will characterize a person’s social interactions. Erikson’s theory emphasized the role that culture and society play in modelling personality traits in individuals. Thus, each stage has its unique features that may be transferred into the next and adulthood.
From birth-eighteen months (Trust vs. Mistrust) is the infancy stage where the child develops trust and attachment to mother and father through visual contact and the sense of touch.When a child experience predictable attachment it gives them hope and they take this confidence to the next relationship. The absence of it leads to mistrust.Eighteen months-3years (Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt) is the early childhood/toddler stage where a child begins to exert some autonomy, self-esteem, knowing right from wrong and developing skills by playing with toys. Children in this stage need to be supported as they learn how to do things on their own. It helps to develop their will and self-esteem. Three-5years (Initiative vs Guilt) is the preschool stage where a child begins to explore, ask questions, take initiatives, and copy adult behavior. Overcoming this crisis leads to the personality trait of purpose.
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Also, the age bracket 6-12(Industry vs. Inferiority) is the school stage characterized by knowledge and skills acquisition, creativity, and social interactions. Teachers are critical in children’s life in this stage and relationships go beyond the family.A child’s initiative needs to be approved for confidence and competency. Twelve-18years (Identity vs. Role Confusion) is the adolescent stage characterized by identity seeking and recognition. It is a critical stage because it represents a transition from what has been done to a child and what the adolescent does. At this stage the quest for a role to be played, and the body image of adolescent changes. Eighteen-35years (Intimacy vs. Isolation) is the young adult, a period of craving for intimacy and relationships. The middle-age adult, 35-65years (Generativity vs. Stagnation) is about family, work, career, taking up roles and responsibility in society. Late adulthood is from 65-death (Ego Integrity vs. Despair), a period of fulfillment or despair, fear of death and questions about life purpose.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development has been given critical reviews and contributions. Notable supportive contribution has come from peer-reviewed texts (McAdams, 1999). It contributes to the psychosocial stages of personality development of Erikson. Critics fault the theory on the grounds that it lacks discrete stages ((McCrae & Costa, 1997). The theory applies to many individual experiences and its conceptualization is universal. The connections between the psychology of individuals as they grow and the parental and social factors cannot be refuted.
Alfred Adler’s theory of childhood development relates with Erikson’s theory of psychosocial personality development. Adler’s theory centers on parenting. The theory posits that the types of parenting and the development of a child impacts on their personality. He maintains that an over pampered children can become spoiled, finding it difficult to get love when they grow. And when children are neglected they will lack confidence. This lack of confidence will result in poor skill development and task accomplishment. Also, they will not be able to attract love. Children that are overprotected and pampered can experience feelings of inferiority and dependence later in their lives. And children who encounter neglect, abuse, sibling rivalry or competition, domination, and depreciation will progress to feel psychologically weak, small, helpless, and inferior.
Sibling competition is in accordance with birth order. Adler theorized that the position of a child in the birth order has a high possibility of affecting the child’s psychosocial development. Environment can be interpreted differently by each child. This difference in interpretation Adler points out is because environment changes with the birth of a new child. The first born children often act and behave in ways that attempts to get the parent’s attention. And they may accept parent’s authority and family practice values instilled in them. The second born, may show sign of competition with the first born. The youngest may fail to become independent, relying on the parent or first born.
According to Adler, five positions exist in birth order, the oldest, second of only two, middle, only, and the youngest. Their characteristics include the following; if a child is the only child to a family, they like being the center of adult attention. They are difficult; hardly share their stuff with their peers. And have a preference for adult company.The only child shares some of the personality traits of the oldest child but change set in when another child is added to thefamily. The oldest child assumes responsibilities quicker than the rest of the kids if encouraged (Mendelson & Gottlieb,1994). They received their parent attention because they are the first. Attention tends to shift to each new baby. They exert more authority on the younger ones. They often try to attach to their father when another child is born. The oldest is more dependable and achievement-focused. The second child is more competitive in nature. And can create rivalry easily. If there is a middle child, they tend to be even-tempered because of their position. The youngest child will always want to be the bigger among the children. Seeks attention and appears to be more important than everyone ahead of them. They are almost always spoiled, because they are the most cuddled of all.
Birth order has influence in a person’s personality traits. The interaction between a child and the parent is critical in the development of the right personality traits for normal behavior in adult life. The role played by each child in a family setting is also significant on how the child develops mentally. In early childhood, the first child gets more attention. If a child is the only child, the child gets all the attention and pampering. The youngest child also received greater attention because they are the little one assumed to deserve more cuddling and care. The manner in which a parent interacts with a particular child in the birth order affects how the children interact with each other. And during the adolescence stage of life, birth order has been demonstrated to have an impact on the psychological development of a person. Different factors such as birth order, parental treatment, and social environment contribute to the psychological development of an individual. These factors support Adler’s theory that birth order has a significant influence on the personality traits of an individual. Adler’s theory also connects with Erikson’s theory of psychosocial personality development.
References
Erikson, E. H. (1993). Childhood and society. WW Norton & Company.
McAdams, D. P. (2001).The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5 (2), 100
McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal. American Psychologist, 52 (5), 509.
Mendelson, M. J. & Gottlieb, L. N. (1994).Birth order and age differences in early sibling roles.
Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 26 (3), 385-403.
