Personality psychology is a field of psychology which involves the study of personality and its subsequent variations among people (Ashcraft, 2014). Personality psychology's primary field of focus includes the analysis of the psychological differences amid individuals, the analysis of various psychological similarities and human nature amid individuals, and the construction of coherent portrayals of the individual and their important psychological procedures. Personality is an organized and dynamic set of attributes possessed by an individual that distinctively impacts their behaviors, motivations, emotions, cognitions, and their environment in different situations. Additionally, personality often envisages the reaction of humans to other people, stress, and issues. Gordon Allport, an American psychologist, delineated two crucial ways of studying personality: idiographic and nomothetic psychology. Idiographic psychology attempts to foster one’s apprehension on the unique features of a specific individual. Nomothetic psychology, on the other hand, involves the study of general regulations that may be applicable to different individuals, for instance, the extraversion trait, and the precept of self-actualization. Major personality psychology theories include social learning, evolutionary, behaviorist, biological, humanistic, psychodynamic, and trait (dispositional) perspective (Ashcraft, 2014). The paper will critically analyze two primary personality psychology theories (psychodynamic and humanistic theories) and present an evaluation of their subsequent similarities and differences.
Psychodynamic Theory
The psychodynamic theory, commonly referred to as psychodynamics is a psychology approach which emphasizes the systematic analysis of the psychological forces underlying human emotions, feeling, and behavior and their effects on a person’s experience; it is primarily centered on reviewing the dynamic relations amid the unconscious and conscious motivation (Engler, 2014). Psychodynamics also delineates the psychoanalytical approach coined by Sigmund Freud and his followers. Sigmund was inspired by the thermodynamics theory and utilized the phrase to delineate various mind processes as psychological energy flows (psi or libido) in an organically composite brain. Freud propounded that psychological forces function at three awareness levels: The conscious level, unconscious level, and the conscious level. The conscious level relates to the sensations, feelings, and thoughts known to an individual at a particular time. The preconscious level is typified by data not known to a person at a particular time. However, this information may quickly enter the conscious section of the brain. The unconscious level, on the other hand, contains drives, aspirations, feelings, and thoughts not known by an individual. However, the unconscious level’s contents affect out conscious activity levels. Sigmund believed that many human behaviors are triggered by the desires, concepts, and aspirations in a person’s brain which are not readily accessible by the mind’s conscious section; this highlights that one’s brain often knows things unknown to the mind. The reservoir of conceptualizations unknown to humans is referred to as the unconscious (John, Gregory, & Tomi, 2017).
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The psychoanalytic theory propounds that personality attributes are usually a reflection or manifestation of the contents of the mind's unconscious section. Sigmund maintained that the unconscious is a crucial element of a human's biological nature and that it functions naturally, synonymous to other biological functions. He argued that certain thoughts and ideas are often repressed (forced out of the conscious into the unconscious). According to Sigmund's theory, this usually occurs in instances where the thoughts and ideas threaten us. Even though repression keeps unpleasant data in the unconscious and out of one’s consciousness, the repressed data is influential and may extravasate from the unconscious and manifest itself through dreams, thoughts, and behaviors (John, Ronins, & Oervin, 2010). The unconscious thoughts usually manifest themselves in a dissimulated form to avoid the unduly disturbance of the conscious mind. Freud suggested that the appropriate place to find clues or indications to the unconscious is in dreams. According to Freud, a dream is a concealed form of what we unconsciously desire. The present elements and the events that occur in a dream are referred to as the dream's manifest content; they are usually the dissimulated models of one's unconscious thoughts. A dream's latent content relates to the interpretation of various dream elements.
Personality Structures
Sigmund Freud argued that human personality often emerges because of conflict amid our pleasure and aggressive seeking biological compulsion and the internalized social self-restraint against them. Personality, therefore, arises during our effort to settle the conflicts. Freud propounded three primary structures which liaise with each other: Superego, Ego, and Id (Cohen et al ., 2013). The id is the section of the mind which incorporates our animalistic urges, inborn dispositions, and basic instincts; it is the unconscious and irrational structure of personality. The id is primitive and immune to rectitude or morality and the ultimatums of the external world. The id functions by the pleasure principle, and it often strives for immediate satisfaction. The ego is a personality structure whose development commences in childhood and may be delineated as the ‘self.' The ego often functions following the reality principle and is partly unconscious and partly conscious. The ego is often involved with the functioning of the actual world; it is the rational and conscious personality structure that regulates behaviors and thoughts. The ego often teaches an individual to balance personal needs and the needs of the external world. The superego relates to the internal representation of societal and societal values; it incorporates the moral ideas learned by an individual within society and family. The superego often functions as the voice of conscience which impels the ego to consider the actual and the ideal. The superego often judges an individual's behaviors as wrong or right. Failing to keep up with the moral ideals generate anxiety, inferiority, guilt, and shame to a person. Freud argued that the development of a healthy personality requires a balance amid the superego and the id (Cohen et al ., 2013).
Personality Development
Freud argued that personality attributes often evolve through a sequence of stages which occur during adolescence and childhood; these phases are commonly referred to as the psychosexual stage since they focus on the psyche (mental) ideas regarding sex. During these phases, the id’s pleasure-seeking tendencies focus on different body areas. Freud’s psychosexual stages include oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital (Boyle, Mathews, & Saklofske, 2008). According to Boyle, Mathews, and Saklofske (2008), during the oral stage (0-18 months), pleasure is often centered in the mouth, and it leads to activities such as biting and sucking. The adult oral personality attributes derived from this phase include activities such as the biting of nails, overeating, dependency, and smoking. During the anal stage (18-36 months) pleasure is often centered on the bladder and bowel elimination. During the phallic phase (4 to 6 years) pleasure is normally centered in the genitals. The fondling and touching of genitals often generate a significant level of pleasure. During the latency phase (7 to 11 years) children often repress or restrain their sexual urges and channel them into socially recognized activities, for instance, arts and sports. Lastly, during the genital phase (from the outset of puberty) pleasure is often centered in the genitals. The maturation of various sexual interests typifies the phase.
Defense Mechanisms
The ego is usually tasked with the duty of onerous duty of mediating amid the instinctual needs of the id and the super ego’s moral position. The ego often attempts to resolve the problem, and in instances where a realistic compromise or solution is impossible, the ego often indulges in perverting perceptions or thoughts of actuality through certain procedures commonly referred to as defense mechanisms. Humans normally use the defense mechanism technique to protect or defend themselves. Defense mechanisms may also be referred to as adjustment mechanisms. The key defense mechanisms include denial, rationalization, displacement, projection, regression, sublimation, and repression (Cohen et al., 2013). Denial refers to the failure to acknowledge or recognize the actuality of an unpleasant or irksome event or data; this involves phrases such as I haven’t seen, and I do not know. Displacement involves the redirection of emotional impulses or compulsions toward one another, for instance, substituting a person with an object. Projection involves the attempt to attribute an individual’s unacceptable impulse to others. Rationalization involves the justification of our feelings or actions through socially acceptable standards. Reaction formation is a defense mechanism whereby, one thinks or acts in a manner that is the extremely contrary to the unacceptable urges. Regression is an adjustment mechanism whereby, one attempts to retreat to an earlier developmental stage’s behavior characteristic. Repression involves the exclusion of anxiety generating thoughts, impulses or feelings from consciousness. Lastly, sublimation involves the channeling of sexual compulsions into productive, non-sexual activities. Freud’s theory has been subject to various controversies. Different theorists conflicted with Sigmund on particular issues; these theorists include Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, and Carl Jung.
Carl Jung: Collective Unconsciousness
Carl was averse to the crucial role of aggression and sex in human life. Alternatively, Jung propounded that a more general psychological drive often motivates individuals. He argued that the deepest section of one’s psyche consists of the collective unconscious; this part is a set of effects inherited from the human race and our families (Ashcraft, 2014). Carl further argues that the collective unconscious consists of archetypes; these are mental portrayals of a specific experience, object, or person. Examples of archetypes include heroes, innocent child, and powerful father.
Karen Horney: Basic Anxiety
Karen underscored the significance of social relations in the development of personality. Basic anxiety relates to the feeling of helplessness and isolation in a child living in a prospectively hostile world (Jess, Gregory, & Tomi, 2017).
Alfred Adler: Superiority and Inferiority Feelings
Alfred propounded that the primary human motive is the motive to strive for superiority. He claims that the motive often emerges from the feelings of inferiority which are normally experienced during childhood and infancy (John, Robins, & Pervin, 2010). During these periods, the child is usually helpless and relies on other individuals for support and assistance.
The Humanistic Theory
The humanistic theoretical perspective propounds that within every individual, there is an active, creative force or drive referred to as the ‘self' which often strives for expression and it grows and develops. The humanistic perspective is commonly referred to as the third force, and it emphasizes aspects such as human potential and attributes like free will and self-awareness. The humanistic approach perceives humans as inherently good. The subjective and conscious perceptiveness of self is usually considered significant. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rodgers are the primary exponents of the humanistic theory. Abraham Maslow propounded the conceptualization of self-actualized individuals (Boyle, Mathews, & Saklofske, 2008). Maslow argued that human motives are systemized according to the hierarchy of needs (John, Robins, & Pervin, 2010).
He claimed that human needs are range from the psychological demands to self-transcendence. Additionally, Maslow noted that the self-actualized persons often possess a realistic percipience, are spontaneous, they readily acknowledge others and “self,” and appreciate and enjoy the positive elements of life, for instance, independence and privacy. Carl Rodgers, on the other hand, believed that the fundamental human motive is the actualization of tendency. He claimed that the actualization of tendency is the congenital drive to sustain and promote the human organism (Engler, 2014). Carl argued that individuals are usually influenced to act in conformity with their self-conceptualization. He claimed that humans often distort or deny the experiences or encounters that are contradictory to their self-conception. He further argues that the ideal development condition is the unconditional positive perception. Rodger’s idea of a fully functioning person is that the self-conception is evolving and flexible; it influences human beings’ optimistic view.
Contrast and Comparison
Differences
The humanistic and psychodynamic perspectives differ in various ways; their contradicting perceptions of personality psychology are actually evident. One significant difference is perceived in their perspective on human nature and societal impact. The psychodynamic theory perceives human nature in an extremely cynical and pessimistic way. The psychodynamic theorists believe that humans are usually conceived with a selfish and evil monster within themselves - the id which functions exclusively on the pleasure principle (Jess, Gregory, & Tomi, 2017). The id only aspires to achieve immediate pleasure and circumvent pain without considering the morality of an individual’s actions. Freud claims that the id’s ways of thinking are entirely out of touch with reality; it, therefore, seeks irrational ways to satisfy its desires. The theorists argue that deep down in a human being’s unconscious mind, he lusts for the most disgusting and revolting pleasures, although humans are only aware of the filtered and safe models of their original destructive and erotic compulsions. Additionally, they perceive the society as an anchor that inculcates morality (the superego and ego) in humans. Humanistic theorists, on the other hand, are more optimistic about the nature of humans; they perceive human nature as intrinsically good. Humanistic theorists have a positive perception about humans and criticize the psychodynamic viewpoint; these psychologists feel that human beings are usually born upright. The humanistic perspective disregards the perception of humans as evil beings and emphasizes their potential (Engler, 2014). The approach emphasizes the concept of free will and its subsequent role in shaping human behavior. However, they perceive society as a virtuous human being’s destructive force; they believe that society destroys and harms an individual’s inherent proclivity to be good.
Another conflicting perspective amid the humanistic and psychoanalytic theories is their perception of personality development. Psychoanalytic theorists believe that personality is shaped as an individual goes through various developmental phases (psychosexual stages) from infancy to adulthood. The humanistic approach, on the other hand, propounds that it may take a long time for a human being to understand and develop his full potential; this is highly evident in Abraham’s Hierarchy of Needs (Cohen et al., 2013). Thirdly, both approaches’ perception of the origin of motives amid human beings is contradictory. According to Freud, human motives often originate from the unconscious, the id; these motives are usually established on a human being’s selfish motives. However, the superego and the ego attempt to balance the id’s pleasures by substituting the pleasures with actuality precepts. On the contrary, according to the humanistic approach, particularly Abraham Maslow’s theory, human motives are usually ascertained by the desire to fulfill various needs (hierarchy of needs) that are systemized in order of significance.
Similarities
The humanistic and psychodynamic theoretical approaches have basic individualistic themes. Both theorists place humans at the core of their theories. In the psychodynamic theory, humans are perceived as evil and selfish creatures who aim at satisfying their desires without considering various morality aspects. The humanistic approach subsequently perceives humans as upright and good; they typify humans with the capacity to mature and grow into their best personalities. The theories underscore the significance of humans in personality development. Secondly, both theories have been subjected to criticism on various aspects. The psychoanalytic theory’s criticisms were based on the absence of empirical studies since at the point of its development; there were no previous studies to serve as references with regards to personality psychology (John, Robins, & Pervin, 2010). The humanistic theory has also been criticized due to its ambiguity. Critics claim that it is impossible to determine whether one has fulfilled a particular need and that the level of fulfillment may vary from one individual to the other. Additionally, critics claim that the humanistic approach lacks objectivity and it recurrently refers to common sense issues and, therefore, lacking in empirical studies, synonymous to the psychoanalytic perspective.
Conclusion
Personality psychology is a scientific field aimed at demonstrating how individuals are significantly different due to various psychological aspects. Personality relates to the sequence or a system of behaviors, social adjustments, feelings, and thoughts evinced consistently over time which dynamically impacts one’s expectations, attitudes, values, and self-perception. Personality studies have an extensive and varied psychology history with a plethora of theoretical perceptions. Freud propounded that psychological forces function at three awareness levels: The conscious level, unconscious level, and the conscious level. The humanistic theoretical perspective propounds that within every individual, there is an active, creative force or drive referred to as the ‘self’ which often strives for expression and it grows and develops. The humanistic perspective emphasizes aspects such as human potential and attributes like free will and self-awareness. Abraham Maslow and Carl Rodgers are the primary exponents of the humanistic theory. The similarities amid the two theories include the fact that they both have individualistic themes and have been subject to various criticisms. The differences include the different perceptions of human nature and their societal impacts, personality development, and the origin of human motivations.
References
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Jess F., Gregory J., & Dr., Tomi-Ann R. (2017). Theories of Personality. Place of publication not identified: McGraw-Hill.
John, O. P., Robins, R. W., & Pervin, L. A. (2010). Handbook of personality: Theory and research . New York: Guilford Press.
