Pilot Fatigue in Current Aviation Industry

1.0 Introduction 

1.1 Background 

The Civil Aviation Organization defines fatigue as, “ a physiological state of reduced mental or physical performance capability resulting from sleep loss or extended wakefulness, circadian phase, or workload that can impair a crew member’s alertness and ability to safely operate an aircraft or perform safety-related duties ” (CAO, 2016). Elsewhere in Rudari et al. (2016), the Federal Aviation Authority (FAA) has defined fatigue as ‘a condition characterized by increased discomfort with lessened capacity for work, reduced efficiency of accomplishment, loss of power or capacity to respond to stimuli, and is usually accompanied by a feeling of weariness and tiredness .” The other definition of fatigue is ‘the self-recognized state in which an individual experiences an overwhelming sustained sense of exhaustion and decreased capacity for physical and mental work that is not relieved by rest ” (Aaronson et al., 1999). Fatigue has been defined as ‘a subjective, unpleasant symptom which incorporates total body feelings ranging from tiredness to exhaustion , creating an unrelenting overall condition which interferes with an individual ’ s ability to function at normal capacity’ (Aaronson et al., 1999).

Legislative improvements have been witnessed recently, and some jurisdictions now have put in place improved regulations on crew rest requirements. These requirements consist of requirements that a pilot should be fit for duty, fatigue risk management systems should be put in place, flight time have to be limited, flight duty periods should be availed , limits have to be set on flight duty period as well as cumulative flight time . Most importantly , rest periods ought to be availed (Rudari et al. , 2016 ; Gander et al., 2015; Bourgeois-Bougrine et al., 2003; Goode , 2003 ). Also, these new legislative improvements require aviation authorities to consider factors such as times zones crossed, time of day, and other findings of research on fatigue as they issue regulations. The ‘fitness for duty’ regulation requires that the pilot s affirm that they are well rested and prepared to undertake their duties. The fatigue risk management system (FRMS) has been defined as "the planning and control of the working environment, in order to minimize, as far as is reasonably practicable, the adverse effects of fatigue on workforce alertness and performance" (Rudari et al. , 2016). As far as flight time limitations and flight duty periods are concerned, the FAA of the United States (U.S) prescribes a maximum flight time limit for two, three and four pilot crew during various times of the day . I n addition, it defines limits for flight duty of between 9 and 14 hours depending on factors such as start time. Further, the new requirements limit the number of hours a pilot is permitted to fly in any 627 cumulative hour duty period of 100 hours or a maximum of 1000 hours in a 365 day calendar period. Once all these factors are into consideration, the new regulations require that pilots have at least 10 hours of rest with 8 hours of uninterrupted sleep before any duty period or between shifts .A cumulative 30 hours of rest between every cumulative 168 hour duty period, often translates to a week (Rudari et al. , 2016).

1.2 Statement of problem 

Due to the competitive nature of the aviation industry currently, most airline companies utilize their pilot flight crews much more exactingly in order to maximize the return on revenues on costs. Pilot fatigue is therefore widespread and a big concern to the airline industry . P reviously, the majority of the pilot crew have reported experiencing fatigue . This resulted in them dozing off in the cockpit or experiencing episodes of microsleep (European Cockpit Association [ ECA ] , 2012). Fatigue has been shown to be dangerous and often result s in air crashes and loss of life . Notable fatigue-related incidences include th e famous Colgan Air flight 3407 that crashed on February 12 th 2009 and a UPS flight 1354 which crashed on August 14 th 2013. T he recommendations given in the final accident report for the improvement of the fatigue risk management system highlighted fatigue as one of the causes of the Colgan crash . However, in the UPS crash , it was found that fatigue impaired the flight performance of both the crew members (Rudari et al., 2016 ; Gander et al., 2015; Bourgeois-Bougrine et al., 2003; Goode , 2003 ).

The ECA has previously published a collated account of fatigue self-assessment surveys or polls by ECA members between 2010 and 2012 . I n t his document, pilot fatigue is confirmed to be common, dangerous and under-reported (ECA, 201 2 ). The p ublication cites that over 50% of pilots experience fatigue which impairs their ability to perform . Likewise, over 80% of pilots have to cope with fatigue while in the cockpit . For instance, between 43-54% of those surveyed reported falling asleep or experiencing episodes of micro-sleep . O thers reported having woken to find their colleague sleeping as well. In addition, of those polled, the results indicate that only 20-30% of th e fatigued pilots would file an ‘unfit for duty’ report . T he rest opted not to file a report for fear of disciplinary action or stigmatization. According to this document, fatigue reduces the physical and mental ability to operate due to its effect on cognition . This lead s to performance impairment that is not self-assessable.

Specifically, there is a consensus that fatigue lead s to increased reaction times, short - term memory loss, impaired judgment, poor decision making, and decreased visual perception. Aviation administrations worldwide such as the FAA and the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) have made changes to previous rest requirements in order to address the fatigue - related risk to the performance by pilot crews. These changes have been driven mainly by the need to meet the requirement to improve pilot fatigue rules based on solid scientific evidence as per the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standards. Informed by the above, a comparative analysis of pilot fatigue was conducted with the aim of determin ing the magnitude, causes, and effects of fatigue in the current aviation industry.

1.3 Objectives 

This study's broad objective was to compare the perceptions of fatigue amongst pilots in the current aviation industry under the various jurisdictions. The aim was to develop a report proposing additional recommendations to the various national aviation administrations, airlines, pilots and the aviation industry in general.

1.3.1 Specific Objectives 

To conduct a comparative analysis of fatigue in the current aviation industry under various jurisdictions.

To propose additional recommendations for the aviation industry.

1.4 Scope 

Th e focus of this problem solution report include s; 

A review of current pilot schedules and international crew rest regulations.

The adequacy of current rest requirements

Causes of fatigue

A comparison of pilot crew rest regulations in different jurisdictions.

Additional recommendations

1.5 Methodology 

This was a comparative analysis involving the use of a gap analysis to compare the provisions for pilot crew rest requirements from two jurisdictions in the aviation industry currently. A collection of articles of studies on pilot fatigue and aviation safety were assembled by searching the major journal databases using EBSCO. Two articles were then selected from two different jurisdictions based on relevance to current pilot fatigue and flight crew rest regulations. These covered t he UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) CAP 737 and European Commission regulations. The search terms used in the search include ‘medical definition of fatigue’, ‘legal definition of fatigue’, ‘pilot crew rest periods’, ‘how useful is the pilot crew rest period’, ‘European cockpit association’ and ‘pilot crew schedules’ amongst others. A comparative analysis of the two perspectives involved the use of a gap analysis table.

2.0 Data analysis 

2.1 Overview of fatigue in the aviation industry 

2.1.1 Medical definition of fatigue 

Definitions of fatigue include, “ the self recognized state in which an individual experiences an overwhelming sustained sense of exhaustion and decreased capacity for physical and mental work that is not relieved by rest ” (Aaronson et al., 1999) . Another definition refers to fatigue as “ a subjective, unpleasant symptom which incorporates total body feelings ranging from tiredness to exhaustion creating an unrelenting overall condition which interferes with an individuals ability to function at normal capacity ” (Aaronson et al., 1999). Fatigue has also been described elsewhere as a universal symptom that is associated not only with illness, but also, in normal health and bodily function . I n physiological terms, fatigue refers to functional organ failure due to depletion of energy and other essential macromolecules (Aaronson et al., 1999).

The interaction of psychosocial and biological phenomena makes the definition of fatigue difficult . H owever, it may be distinguished either as normal, sometimes referred to as acute, or the chronic type sometimes referred to as pathological or psychological (Aaronson et al., 1999). Fatigue may also be distinguished using either central models also referred to as the central nervous system models or the peripheral models. The central models have been referred to as the dysfunction of the central nervous system while the peripheral models are the dysfunction of the peripheral nervous system . T he former has also been described as mental or psychological fatigue and the latter as physical fatigu e (Aaronson et al., 1999). Psychological fatigue is a state of weariness and demotivation resulting from stress or any other extreme emotional episodes, depression, and anxiety. F atigue has been classified as normal, pathologic, situational, or psychological . It has also been classified as pathophysiologic, treatment-related, situational or maturational (Aaronson et al., 1999).

Sleep has been described as a symptom of fatigue and has been defined as a ‘period of diminished responsiveness to external stimuli that alternates with wakefulness on a daily basis’ (Evans-Davies, 1999 ). ‘Circadian rhythms’ refer to the physiological and behavioural processes of humans that revolve around a 25 - hour cycle such as sleeping, wakefulness, digestion, hormone secretion amongst others. The circadian clock is kept set at appropriate time of day by certain signals referred to as ‘zeitgebers . ’ C ommon ones include daylight, meals, work and rest. The shifting of the circadian clock, such as when crossing time zones or shifting work from day to night shift, exacts a ‘sleep phase shift , ’ which requires a time correction. The amount of time required to correct this disruption of the clock will depend on the number of hours involved in the shift as well as the direction of the shift . This is associated with effects that mimic sleep loss. The recommendations for the avoidance of fatigue have been described as either preventing it or alleviating it with rest . I t has been identified as a major safety issue by some associations of pilot and their members (Rudari et al., 2016).

2.1.2 Legal definition of fatigue 

The CAO (2016) defines fatigue as “ a physiol o gical state of reduced mental or physical performance capability resulting from sleep loss or extended wakefulness, circadian phase, or workload that can impair a crew member’s alertness and ability to safely operate an aircraft or perform safety-related duties .” Elsewhere , in Rudari et al. (2016), the FAA has defined fatigue as “ a condition characterized by increased discomfort with lessened capacity for work, reduced efficiency of accomplishment, loss of power or capacity to respond to stimuli, and is usually accompanied by a feeling of weariness and tiredness. ” In the U.S, the ‘rest requirements’ for pilot crews has been codified in Title 14 Code of Federal Regulations Part 117 for passenger operations . 

These regulations apply to all those certified to operate under 14 CFR Part 121, mostly passenger airline pilots in the US . H owever, cargo carriers licensed to operate under Part 121 are exempt from part 117. In the European U nion (EU) , pilot fatigue risk is addressed by E . U Flight Time Limit (FTL) rules in EU Reg. 83/2014 as well as at the airline company level. Tthe Convention on International Civil aviation, also referred to as Chicago convention, air accident investigations are conducted with the intention of determining deficiencies and making recommendations to avoid recurrences, but not for the purposes of liability, blame or criminal liability. Until the recent legislative improvements in crew rest requirements in some jurisdictions, lobbying had been ongoing through various organizations and associations. This has resulted in the adoption of these guidelines as well as the development of fatigue risk management systems by flight operators under the guidance of the various aviation authorities and ICAO (Rudari et al. , 2016).

2.1.3 Current aviation industry pilot crews rest requirements 

Legislative improvements have been witnessed recently, and most jurisdictions now have in place improved regulations on crew rest requirements based on ICAO standards. These requirements consist of requirements that a pilot has to be fit for duty, fatigue risk management systems have to be in place, the flight times are limited, flight duty periods have to be in place, limits have to be set on flight duty period as well as cumulative flight time, and importantly that rest periods be provided (Rudari et al. , 2016 ; Gregory et al., 2010; Pow ell et al., 2007 ). In addition, these new legislative improvements require aviation authorities to consider factors such as times zones crossed, time of day, and other findings of research on fatigue as they issue regulations.

The ‘fitness for duty’ regulation require s that the pilot s affirm that they are well rested and prepared to undertake their duties. The fatigue risk management system (FRMS) has been defined as “ the planning and control of the working environment, in order to minimize, as far as is reasonably practicable, the adverse effects of fatigue on workforce alertness and performance ” (Rudari et al. , 2016). As far as flight time limitations and flight duty periods are concerned, the FAA of United States (U.S) prescribes a maximum flight time limit for two, three and four pilot crew s during various times of the day . I n addition, it defines limits for flight duty of between 9 and 14 hours depending on factors such as start time. Further, the new requirements limit the number of hours a pilot is permitted to fly in any 627 cumulative hour duty period of 100 hours or a maximum of 1000 hours in a 365 day calendar period. When all this is taken into consideration, the new regulations require that pilots have at least 10 hours of rest with 8 hours of uninterrupted sleep prior to any duty period or between shifts and a cumulative 30 hours of rest between every cumulative 168 hour duty period, which often translates to a week (Rudari et al. , 2016).

2.1.4 The adequacy of the crew rest period 

The rest regulations outlined above have to be applied in most cases with consideration for the commercial requirements of the airline companies, contracts with pilots, scheduling practices, and productivity demands . The European Cockpit Association (ECA) has previously published a collated account of fatigue self assessment surveys or polls by ECA members between 2010 and 2012 . I n this document, pilot fatigue is confirmed to be common, dangerous and under-reported (ECA, 201 2 ). In this publication, over 50% of pilots experience fatigue which impairs their ability to perform . About 4 out of 5 pilots have to cope with fatigue while in the cockpit . B etween 43-4% of those surveyed reported falling asleep or experiencing episodes of micro-sleep . O thers reported having woken to find their colleague sleeping as well. In addition, of those polled, the results indicate that only 20-30% would file an ‘unfit for duty’ report with t he rest electing not to file a report for fear of disciplinary action or stigmatization.

Of the pilots polled, a majority in some of the target countries admitted to making mistakes due to fatigue. The results published by the ECA are in agreement with those by Reis et al. (2016) . In their study, Reis et al. (2016) sought to determine daytime sleepiness and sleep complaints prevalence and the effect of this on the perceived fatigue of pilots . T he study also involved the evaluation of socio - demographic parameters and labour variables on sleep complaints, sleepiness and fatigue. In th e study, the prevalence of sleep complaints was 34.9%, daytime sleepiness was 59.3%, and that of fatigue was 90.6%. S ignificant proportion of the pilots polled by ECA (2012) indicated that in addition to consecutive night and early duty shifts, most often, the rest places or possibilities for these rest places w ere either lacking or inadequate (ECA, 2012). In addition, the crew rest time may be eroded markedly by commuting times from work to home, showering, freshening up, spending time with family and eating.

2.1.5 Causes of fatigue 

According to Rudari et al. (2016), pilot schedules are not fixed . Rather, they are characterized by delayed flights, early departures, late arrivals, long duty days, and non standard working hours . Further, the scholars affirm that p ilot fatigue is a well recognized concern in the airline industry (Rudari et al., 2016; ECA, 2012 ; Gregory et al., 2010 ). The causes of fatigue are numerous and varied . H owever, fatigue has been mainly attributed to irregular sleep and work patterns ; long durations of wakeful time ; extensive flying hours ; consecutive night duties ; earlier than scheduled starting times ; and working at the discretion of supervisors (ECA, 2012 ; Gregory et al., 2010; Powell et al., 2007; Bourgeois-Bougrine et al., 2003 ). N ight flights and excessive night duties ; a higher number of sectors flown ; long flying hours ; long duty hours ; and use of discretion time-frequency were more significantly associated with reports of fatigue. Discretion period refer s to an extension period provided for the completion of task in the case of unforeseen circumstances.

2.2 Gap analysis of the implementation of rest rule requirements by the UK (CAP 737, December 2016) and the European Commission regulations.

Component	UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), CAP 737	European Commission Regulations	Comment
Planning schedules	The CAA to consider	The wording includes the word ‘Shall' while giving directions for operator responsibilities	In contrast to CAP 737, EU regulations are mandatory
Preparation of rosters	The CAA to consider	The wording includes the word ‘Shall’ while giving directions for operator responsibilities	In contrast to CAP 737, EU regulations are mandatory
Appreciating the relationship of frequency and pattern of scheduled flying duty and rest periods	The CAA to consider	The wording includes the word ‘Shall’ while giving directions for operator responsibilities	In contrast to CAP 737, EU regulations are mandatory
Other factors for consideration when planning duty periods	The CAA to consider	The wording includes the word ‘Shall’ while giving directions for operator responsibilities	In contrast to CAP 737, EU regulations are mandatory
Consultation between operators and crew to agree on basic roster concepts	The CAA to consider	The wording includes the word ‘Shall’ while giving directions for operator responsibilities	In contrast to CAP 737, EU regulations are mandatory
Flight time limitations (FTL)	The CAA to consider	The wording includes the word ‘Shall’ while giving directions for operator responsibilities	In contrast to CAP 737, EU regulations are mandatory
Optimum use of opportunities and facilities for rest	The CAA to consider	The wording includes the word ‘Shall’ while giving directions for operator responsibilities	In contrast to CAP 737, EU regulations are mandatory
Flight time schemes with fatigue risk	CAA to consider	The wording includes the word ‘Shall’ while giving directions for operator responsibilities	The ability of commander defined, if fatigue risk is identified in both
Augmented flight crew	No definition is given	Definition is given	No comparable definition is given by CAP 737
In-flight rest	‘Split duty.'	‘ Break’	No definition of in-flight rest given in CAP 737

2.6 Conclusion and recommendations 

2.6.1 Conclusions 

Based on the comparative analysis and as shown in the gap analysis table, the existing regulations are not standardized, particularly with respect to wording and definitions. Also, it is clear that d ue consideration for the viability of airline's commercial operations clashes with the set international standards. Further, there is l ack of regard for the interconnectivity of feedback and research. To address the pilot fatigue challenge, it is crucial for all concerned stakeholders to work towards addressing these gaps. 

2.6.2 Recommendations 

To ensure that the challenge of pilot fatigue is comprehensively addressed, the harmonization of international regulations regarding rest is necessary. This can be accomplished by using evidence of scientific research in fatigue , combined with the economics of airline operation . In this quest, m athematical models can be used. Secondly, r eviewing of national and international rest requirements is necessary. This is with the aim of inclu ding feedback mechanisms , in which case, fatigue risk management systems can be used. 

References 

Bourgeois-Bougrine, S., Carbon, P., Gounelle, C., Mollard, R., & Coblentz, A. (2003). Perceived fatigue for short-and long-haul flights: a survey of 739 airline pilots.  Aviation, space, and environmental medicine ,  74 (10), 1072-1077. 

Civil Aviation Organization (CAO) (2016). Flight-crew human factors handbook: CAP 737. Retrieved from http://publicapps.caa.co.uk/docs/33/CAP%20737%20DEC16.pdf 

European Cockpit Association (ECA). (2012). Pilot Fatigue barometer. Retrieved from https://www.eurocockpit.be/sites/default/files/2017-04/Barometer%20on%20pilot%20fatigue%2C%20ECA%202012.pdf 

Evans-Davis, T. (1999). Pilot fatigue: Unresponsive federal aviation regulations and increasing cockpit technology threaten to rock the nation's pilots to sleep and compromise consumer safety.  J. Air L. & Com. ,  65 , 567. 

Gander, P. H., Mulrine, H. M., Berg, M. J., Smith, A. A. T., Signal, T. L., Wu, L. J., & Belenky, G. (2015). Effects of sleep/wake history and circadian phase on proposed pilot fatigue safety performance indicators.  Journal of sleep research ,  24 (1), 110-119. 

Goode, J. H. (2003). Are pilots at risk of accidents due to fatigue?  Journal of safety research ,  34 (3), 309-313. 

Gregory, K. B., Winn, W., Johnson, K., & Rosekind, M. R. (2010). Pilot fatigue survey: exploring fatigue factors in air medical operations.  Air medical journal ,  29 (6), 309-319. 

Powell, D., Spencer, M. B., Holland, D., Broadbent, E., & Petrie, K. J. (2007). Pilot fatigue in short-haul operations: effects of number of sectors, duty length, and time of day.  Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine ,  78 (7), 698-701. 

Reis, C., Mestre, C., Canhão, H., Gradwell, D., & Paiva, T. (2016). Sleep complaints and fatigue of airline pilots.  Sleep Science ,  9 (2), 73-77. 

Rudari, L., Johnson, M. E., Geske, R. C., & Sperlak, L. A. (2016). Pilot perceptions on impact of crew rest regulations on safety and fatigue.  International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace ,  3 (1): 1-16. https://doi.or/10.15394/ijaaa.2016.1096