Donnelly, E. (2017). The politics of racial disparity reform: Racial inequality and criminal justice policymaking in the states. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 42 (1), 1-27.
The main challenge that policymakers face in the criminal justice system face is inequality. The article provides a framework that can be used in the implementation of racial disparity reforms. The paper also addresses the issue of racial disparity in the social and political set-up. The investigation outcomes stipulate that there are different sections of the society that defines racial disparity distinctly. The article will provide information on how different people perceive racial disparity issue in policymaking.
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Berdejo, C. (2018). Criminalizing race: Racial disparities in plea-bargaining. Boston College Law Review, 59 (1), 1188-1249.
Most investigations focus on the arrest and conviction of the defendant on matters of racial disparities. The article takes a different approach as it focuses on the process that leads to the defendant's confidence. The focus of the article is on racial disparities that take place during the plea-bargaining process. The white defendants have a much higher chance of having their charges dropped than the black defendants.
Fridell, L. (2017). Explaining the disparity in results across studies assessing racial disparity in police use of force: A research note. America Journal of Criminal Justice, 42 (1), 502-513.
The article investigates the connection between racial disparities and policies in the police force. The investigation is a survey conducted by the author through collecting views of different people on the issue of the police force and racial discrimination. The outcomes of the analysis show that there is bias in the use of force by the police. From the investigation, it is evident that racial disparities are a crucial problem in policing as there is biasness. The article will provide information on how the police force's bias has contributed to racial inequality in public policymaking.
Billings, C. (2017). Remedying police brutality in American’s public schools through private structural reform under 42 U.S.C. 1983. Texas Journal of Civil Liberties and Civil Rights, 23 (1), 55-78.
The main problem that the article addresses is the increase in police brutality among American public schools. Legal remedies have been crucial for parents and families to seek justice from the school resource officers' brutality. The use of the 42 U.S.C. 1983 policy has brought rise to convicting the S.R.O. when acted upon by the victims. The article will assist in providing information on how some of the reformation in systems that have led to the provision of justice to those who are discriminated.
Carr, J., & Maxwell, S. (2018). Police officers’ perceptions of organizational justice and their trust in the public. Police Practice and Research, 19(4), 365-379.
Employees perceive justice in institutions differently and it affects their attitude, behavior, and perception of other things. The article investigates the relationship between the internal and external perception of justice by an individual. The study outcomes show the existence of a strong relationship between the perception of organizational justice and trust in the public. The information from the article will be vital in understanding the faults in organizational justice policy implementation and how they affect individuals' behaviors.
Fryer, R. (2016). An empirical analysis of racial differences in police use of force. 1-38
The article investigates the racial disparities that are present in the police force. The outcomes indicate that the Blacks and the Hispanics are at a much higher risk of experiencing pressure on their encounters with the police. The most common force that the blacks and the Hispanics experience is forceful arrest. Information from the article ill assist in the development of a basis for the argument that race is a critical issue in policy in the public set-up.
Gaston, S. (2016). Race, neighborhood context, and drug enforcement: A mixed-method analysis of racial disparities in drug arrests. Dissertation, ProQuest LLC. 1-191.
The article addresses the issue of racial disparities in drug arrest cases. Studies show that lacks have a high chance of selling drugs than whites and, thus, there is a need for arrest policies. The outcomes of the study show the high enforcement of arrest policies in the blacks' neighborhoods. The police mainly use reactive law in the offender's initial arrest, especially if they are blacks. The article gives information on the racial – biased police reforms of drug offenders and how it has affected their public policing strategies.
Kearns, E., Ashooh, E., & Lowrey-Kinberg, B. (2020). Racial differences in conceptualizing legitimacy and trust in police. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45 (1), 190-214.
The conceptualization of public legitimacy affects the trust that the general public has on the police force. The article investigates how the general public conceptualizes legitimacy and their loyalty to the police force. The investigation outcomes indicate that the definition of legitimacy and trust has a different meaning among the other race in society. The article will clarify the racial purpose of trust and legitimacy towards the police force and how that has affected policymaking and implementation.
Kramer, R. (2018). Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law and Society Review, 52 (4), 960-993.
In society, black civilians are at a much higher risk of being stopped by the police, interrogates, and even frisked. Some even undergo arrest without a warrant form the law. There is a need to have a better understanding of racial disparities in the police force. The article suggests the persistence of inequalities in the police force despite the existence of reforms that have been key in reducing the number of blacks being stopped by police officers. The article's information will be useful in understanding why racial disparities in the police force are towards mainly the blacks than any other race.
Smart, H. (2019). Operationalizing a conceptual model of colorism in local policing. Social Justice Research, 32 (1), 72-115.
The article aims to investigate how colorism affects policing. The outcomes of the study show that colorism is a critical factor in the policing process. People of color are being sidelined in the policing process as their needs are not incorporated. The information in the article will enhance the understanding of the importance of inclusivity in the policing process.
Posick, C., & Hatfield, H. (2017). Putting H.E.A.R.T. into policing: A 21st century model for effective and fair policing. An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40 (1), 128-140.
The study aims to create a model that the police can use to enhance their interaction with the general public. Incidents taking place in the past have made citizens lose their trust in the law. They perceive the police as enemies and are always in confrontation. The study proposes a H.E.A.R.T model to enhance police-citizen interaction, and the outcomes show a significant correlation. The investigation model will help discuss some of the strategies that can be vital in changing the public's perception of the police. The information will assist in the creation of much better policy reforms that are not biased.
Buckler, K., & Wilson, S. (2010). The Debate over Police Reform: Examining Minority Support for Citizen Oversight and Resistance by Police Unions. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 35 (1), 184-197.
The creation of oversight among citizens has brought about a debate among those in support and the police against the action. The article uses a retrospective approach to investigate the extent to which the opposing forces impact the availability of oversight. The investigation outcomes suggest that an organization that takes part in collective bargaining is more likely to take advantage of management. The article's information will provide details on how inclusivity will enhance oversight as a solution to racial disparities in policing.
Schlesinger, T. (2007). The cumulative effects of racial disparities in criminal processing. Journal of the Institute of Justice and International Studies, 7 (1), 262-278.
Blacks and Latinos are the ones who face beneficial sentencing decisions when compared to whites. In the most instance, that have a low chance of being granted non-financial release such as bonds. The article's information shows how the justice system is corrupt and biased in handling blacks than Whites. The information in the report will enhance the understanding of racial disparities and their implications towards policing.
Shjarback, J., Decker, S., Rojek, J., & Brunson, R. (2017). Minority representation in policing and racial profiling: A test of representative bureaucracy vs community context. An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40 (4), 748-767.
The best way to increase the police-citizen relationship is by increasing minority representation. The less fortunate will feel represented in the policymaking process are more likely to abide by the rules. The article uses the Beauracratic and minority framework to investigate the effect of race in the police department. The outcomes of the investigation show that high departmental representation is not correlated with race disparities. The article will provide recommendations on the way forwards in enhancing the police-citizen relationship.
Smith, M., Rojek, J., Petrocelli, M., & Withrow, B. (2017). Measuring disparities in police activities: A state-of-the-art review. An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40 (2), 166-183.
The research aims to provide a review of racial disparity on the policing issue. The outcomes indicate that over-representation of the minority is a challenge, especially for police enforcement agencies. The information will help understand how representation can be challenging and a solution to the racial disparity issue of policing.
References
Berdejo, C. (2018). Criminalizing Race: Racial Disparities in Plea-Bargaining. Boston College Law Review, 59 (1), 1188-1249.
Billings, C. (2017). Remedying Police Brutality in American’s Public Schools Through Private Structural Reform Under 42 U.S.C. 1983. Texas Journal of Civil Liberties and Civil Rights, 23 (1), 55-78.
Buckler, K., & Wilson, S. (2010). The Debate over Police Reform: Examining Minority Support for Citizen Oversight and Resistance by Police Unions. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 35 (1), 184-197.
Carr, J., & Maxwell, S. (2018). Police officers’ perceptions of organizational justice and their trust in the public. Police Practice and Research, 19(4), 365-379.
Donnelly, E. (2017). The Politics of Racial Disparity Reform: Racial Inequality and Criminal Justice Policymaking in the States. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 42 (1), 1-27.
Fridell, L. (2017). Explaining the Disparity in Results Across Studies Assessing Racial Disparity in Police Use of Force: A Research Note. America Journal of Criminal Justice, 42 (1), 502-513.
Fryer, R. (2016). An Empirical Analysis of Racial Differences in Police Use of Force. 1-38
Gaston, S. (2016). Race, Neighborhood Context, and Drug Enforcement: A Mixed-Method Analysis of Racial Disparities in Drug Arrests. Dissertation, ProQuest LLC. 1-191.
Kearns, E., Ashooh, E., & Lowrey-Kinberg, B. (2020). Racial Differences in Conceptualizing Legitimacy and Trust in Police. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 45 (1), 190-214.
Kramer, R. (2018). Stop, Frisk, and Assault? Racial Disparities in Police Use of Force During Investigatory Stops. Law and Society Review, 52 (4), 960-993.
Posick, C., & Hatfield, H. (2017). Putting H.E.A.R.T. into policing: a 21st century model for effective and fair policing. An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40 (1), 128-140.
Schlesinger, T. (2007). The Cumulative Effects of Racial Disparities in Criminal Processing. Journal of the Institute of Justice and International Studies, 7 (1), 262-278.
Shjarback, J., Decker, S., Rojek, J., & Brunson, R. (2017). Minority representation in policing and racial profiling: A test of representative bureaucracy vs community context. An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40 (4), 748-767.
Smart, H. (2019). Operationalizing a Conceptual Model of Colorism in Local Policing. Social Justice Research, 32 (1), 72-115.
Smith, M., Rojek, J., Petrocelli, M., & Withrow, B. (2017). Measuring disparities in police activities: A state-of-the-art review. An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 40 (2), 166-183.
