Liang, Christopher T. H. and Carin M. Molenaar. 2016. “Beliefs in an Unjust World: Mediating Ethnicity-Related Stressors and Psychological Functioning.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 72(6): 552–62.
Liang and Molenaar base their perception of racism and healthcare in the belief in the unjust world (BUW), which then forces individuals to develop, perceived discrimination and own group conformity pressures. The authors conducted research on 215 ethnic minority individuals to establish the extent to which racism is negatively associated with health. The study adopted structural equation modeling in order to explore the effect of BUW on ethnicity-related stressors and anger rumination. Liang and Molenaar sought to shed more light into the issue of perceived ethnic discrimination (PED) as it is central to racism as evidenced in healthcare setup. According to the authors, PED refers to the discriminatory treatment owing to linguistic, cultural, or phenotypical differences. Although PED has been researched for 20 years, the authors feel that prior research has not brought forth the expected breakthrough to reduce PED. In this case, the authors have proposed the use of BUW as it has the potential of determining the relationship between own-group conformity pressures (OGCPS), PED and psychological well-being. The research study conducted by Liang and Molenaar adopted various measures to determine the role of BUW in promoting the relationship between OGCPS and PED. One of the measures used in the study is the General Ethnic Discrimination Scale, an 18-item tool to measure perceived ethnic discrimination where the participants rated the frequency of the perceived discrimination. The study also used the 5-item Unjust Views Scale to assess the participants believe in an unfair world. Finally, the study used the 19-item Anger Rumination Scale to establish their anger levels on perceiving discrimination. The measures have several clinical implications as they establish that any psychological intervention for individuals with ethnic-related stressors must focus more on anger rumination. Focusing on the aspects of BUW will help in improving an individual’s well-being.
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Priest, Naomi, Yin Paradies, Brigid Trenerry, Mandy Truong, Saffron Karlsen, and Yvonne Kelly. 2013. "A Systematic Review of Studies Examining the Relationship between Reported Racism and Health and Wellbeing for Children and Young People" Social Science & Medicine 95(2013): 115.
Priest and the other authors reiterate the fact that health inequalities can be traced to the persistent racial and ethnic discrimination. The rising discrimination, in turn, leads to poor health outcomes among adults, children, and youth drawn from ethnic and racial minorities. The authors have written this paper with the aim of examining the relationship between reported discrimination, youth, and children healthcare outcomes. The study which is based on previous studies examines 121 studies most of which are published within the last seven years of this particular study. The research studies include 12-18 olds drawn from African-Americans, Latino/a, and Asians population that is more likely to experience racial and ethnic discrimination. In conducting the study, the authors have addressed the importance of putting into consideration the social determinants of health, as they are important to understanding healthcare inequalities. In this case, the authors have established that various studies have continually asserted the need to include children and youth, as they are recipients of increasing healthcare inequalities. Ethnic and racial discrimination, which is at the center of this study as it occurs in three levels, which are internalized, interpersonal, and systemic. Of the three systemic racism is the most rampant and it is the one associated with healthcare inequalities. The authors establish that systemic racism revolves around production and control of the existing resources. The minority ethnicities and races do not own the required healthcare resources and have to rely on the goodwill of the policymakers. The literature review conducted in this study established a positive relationship between negative mental health outcomes and racial discrimination. Moreover, the study indicated that there is a consistent and strong negative relationship between positive mental health outcomes and racial discrimination.
Viruell-Fuentes, Edna A., Patricia Y. Miranda, and Sawsan Abdulrahim. 2012. “More than Culture: Structural Racism, Intersectionality Theory, and Immigrant Health.” Social Science and Medicine 75(12): 2099–2106 .
Viruell-Fuentes and other authors have offered a varied insight into the concept of healthcare inequalities among racial and ethnic minorities. The authors are aware of the fact that previous studies have concentrated on cultural explanations to explain the persistence in healthcare inequalities. However, the authors feel that it is time that researchers adopted a multidimensional perspective to have a better understanding of the real nature of healthcare inequalities. Cultural explanations are misleading as they propose that culture is to be blamed for influencing negative social norms such as drinking smoking and dietary patterns, which lead to poor health. In this case, Viruell-Fuentes and the other users recommend on making an inquiry into the role that immigration policies play in determining immigrants’ healthcare outcomes. The technical intersectionality theory is a very effective framework that is quite practical in analyzing and understanding the extent of healthcare inequalities. The intersectionality theory, which has its origins in the writings of US Black feminists, challenges the role of class and race in shaping the minorities experiences. According to the authors, intersectionality theory establishes that gender, class, and race as systems of oppression are mutual as they work together to enhance inequalities. Essentially racism intersects with marginalization and other forms of oppression in influencing immigrants health outcomes. Immigrants who are getting into the US and who are willing to become Americans must contend with ideologies that see them as racial minorities. In the end, the racialization of communities exposes them to poor healthcare outcomes.
Bailey, Zinzi D., Nancy Krieger, Madina Agénor, Jasmine Graves, Natalia Linos, and Mary T. Bassett 2017. “Structural Racism and Health Inequities in the USA: Evidence and Interventions.” The Lancet 389(10077):1453–63.
Bailey and the other authors establish that most policymakers, scientists, and other stakeholders are yet to agree that racism plays a central role in advancing health equalities in the US. The authors take a different stance on health inequalities by focusing on structural racism by adopting contemporary and historical perspectives. According to Bailey et al, structural racism refers to all the ways in which societies advance racial discrimination by reinforcing systems related to housing, employment, education criminal justice, and healthcare. The authors insist that structural racism should be adopted as it offers a feasible and concrete approach towards achieving health equity and improvement of health outcomes for populations. The issue of healthcare inequalities has been part of the government statistics dating back to the founding of colonial America. Over the years, racism has taken a structural perspective as the existing structures help to propagate research. Sadly, most of the researchers have not given much attention to the impact of racism on healthcare outcomes thus creating a perspective gap. Instead, most of the empirical research has focused on perceived unfair treatment as reported by individuals. As a result, the policymakers are not able to establish the magnitude of racism in influencing healthcare outcomes among minorities. The authors feel that discriminatory incarceration and residential segregation which are forms of institutional and structural racism is responsible for poor healthcare outcomes for the ethnic minorities. In this case, the authors propose that all forms of structural and institutional racism should be addressed to reduce the obvious healthcare inequalities.
Feagin, Joe and Zinobia Bennefield. 2014. “Systemic Racism and U.S. Health Care.” Social 103: 7–14.
Feagin and Zinobia focus on the relationship between healthcare delivery and racism by adopting a systemic racism theory. This social science theoretical approach has been used in assessing decades of empirical research concerned with US public health institutions and healthcare. The authors establish that the US has perpetuated systemized and rationalized racism for many centuries something that has made the fight against racism a difficult undertaking. According to Feagin and Zinobia racial framing, which advances racial stereotypes images, ideologies, and emotions, are responsible for systemic racism. Technically racialized framing owing to several centuries of slavery contemporary white oppression and segregation has prevented many Americans of color from accessing adequate healthcare services. Systemic racism theory, which is the focus of this article, rides on five major dimensions of US racism. The dimensions are comprehensive white racial framing, dominant racial hierarchy, collective and individual discrimination, racist institutions, and reproduction of racialized inequalities. The authors establish that the dimensions of US racism help to propagate systemic racism evidenced in inequalities in assessing resources. The authors feel that the question of systemic racism cannot be answered fully without focusing on the powerful white actors who advance racism. In this case, the powerful whites are quite influential as they are responsible for most of the health-related problems owing to discriminative policies. The authors feel that it is important to deal with the root causes of systemic racism if the US is to offer all citizens equitable healthcare services.
Heard-Garris, N. J. M. Cale, L. Camaj, M. C. Hamati, and T. P. Dominguez. 2018. “Transmitting Trauma: A Systematic Review of Vicarious Racism and Child Health.” Social Science & Medicine 199:230–40.
Heard-Garris and other authors take a different stance on the issue of rare3sscism as related to healthcare. The authors establish that previous research has focused mostly on the direct negative impacts of racism on healthcare outcomes of the population. However, the authors feel that research has failed to advance the fact that racism has indirect negative effects on the children as their experiences are linked to the adults’ experiences. It is true that a growing body of research has attempted to establish children’s’ direct exposure to racism but has failed in demonstrating vicarious racism. The authors have attempted to assert that vicarious racism plays a significant role in undermining healthcare outcomes among children. A systemic review of 30 studies related to vicarious exposure by the authors proved that children mental health and socio-emotional outcomes were at risk. The article is founded on the fact that the previous studies failed in defining vicarious racism, which may have interfered with the intended research findings. Nonetheless, the authors organized their research around a schematic diagram, which illustrates indirectly experienced racism to identify the gaps. The authors hope to seal the gaps by first developing a uniform definition for vicarious racism by using psychometrically validated tools considering the continual exposure to racially charged events. In this way, the authors will help in reducing vicarious forms of discrimination and thus help in improving healthcare outcomes for the minorities’ children.
Bhui, Kamaldeep, 2002. “Racism and Mental Health: Prejudice and Suffering.” Questia. Retrieved May 30, 2019 (https://www.questia.com/library/119652076/racism-and-mental-health-prejudice-and-suffering).
Bhui advances the issue of racism by focusing on its psychosocial and psycho-political aspects as evidenced in healthcare delivery, outcomes, and inequalities. Racism, which is a form of prejudice, is deeply embedded in society and the only way to end this prejudice is by engaging in both political and social dialogues. The author establishes that high profile, politicians, and democracy play a significant role in enhancing these dialogues. Bhui sees racism as a way society uses to categorize its members based on their distinct heredity and descent. This categorization is used to address conflicts that take place between groups making racial relations a tool for managing nature problems. The author feels that this perception of racism has not helped in alleviating the existing political and social inequities. Instead, racial invocations help to perpetuate inequalities as it fuels the existing racial tensions. Bhui goes ahead to assert that societies have embraced restrictive and oppressive political and social policies where racism is condoned. Racist ideology is a concept that is advanced in this article by exploring its negative implications. In this case, Bhui feels that democracy is a mirage as it purports to advance democracy while in fact, it helps in curtailing the minority groups’ efforts to thrive. According to Bhui democracy promises the minorities that they can survive the hopeless situation of being assaulted owing to their skin color. The very thought of having the capacity to survive establishes that the minorities accept hatred, segregation, and inequalities. Bhui asserts that it is time that mental health involved reality testing as minorities are deluded that all is well when it is not.
Reference list
Bailey, Zinzi D., Nancy Krieger, Madina Agénor, Jasmine Graves, Natalia Linos, and Mary T. Bassett 2017. “Structural Racism and Health Inequities in the USA: Evidence and Interventions.” The Lancet 389(10077):1453–63.
Bhui, Kamaldeep, 2002. “Racism and Mental Health: Prejudice and Suffering.” Questia. Retrieved May 30, 2019 (https://www.questia.com/library/119652076/racism-and-mental-health-prejudice-and-suffering).
Feagin, Joe and Zinobia Bennefield. 2014. “Systemic Racism and U.S. Health Care.” Social 103:7–14.
Heard-Garris, N. J. M. Cale, L. Camaj, M. C. Hamati, and T. P. Dominguez. 2018. “Transmitting Trauma: A Systematic Review of Vicarious Racism and Child Health.” Social Science & Medicine 199:230–40.
Liang, Christopher T. H. and Carin M. Molenaar. 2016. “Beliefs in an Unjust World: Mediating Ethnicity-Related Stressors and Psychological Functioning.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 72(6): 552–62.
Priest, Naomi, Yin Paradies, Brigid Trenerry, Mandy Truong, Saffron Karlsen, and Yvonne Kelly. 2013. "A Systematic Review of Studies Examining the Relationship between Reported Racism and Health and Wellbeing for Children and Young People" Social Science & Medicine 95(2013):115.
Viruell-Fuentes, Edna A., Patricia Y. Miranda, and Sawsan Abdulrahim. 2012. “More than Culture: Structural Racism, Intersectionality Theory, and Immigrant Health.” Social Science and Medicine 75(12):2099–2106
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