For most people, just the thought of prisons sends chills down our nerves as it is one of the most uncomfortable and stressful environments. One of the key features experienced by the prisoners is physical, mental and emotional stress. To survive the prison term, all prisoners undergo the burden of stress while some have no issues surviving during their custody time. One of the unavoidable consequences of the concept of punishment is the pain of imprisonment. Since time immemorial, social scientists claim that prisons cause more psychological harm than good in shaping the prisoners. The processed inmate’s self is the major cause of the negative effects of imprisonment. However, one should note that not all inmates experience negative consequences during the period of their term. One outstanding fact that is prominent is that pain of imprisonment impairs the self-esteem of the prisoners. The consensus of the above statement is broad. The consensuses include labeling approach, stress theories, integrative perspectives and recent studies like the work of DeRossia and Power. Self-esteem among the inmates is reflective of what others think of them whether it is the fellow inmates or the community. Therefore, it is important for the inmates to have a social environment for self-appraisals as people tend to respond to themselves in a way those around respond to them. Self-esteem among men aged 18-25 may be context-dependent as several studies indicate.
Most of these studies show that the self-esteem stability during incarceration usually depend on the prisoners coping reactions on both accommodative and protecting situations. Most of the inmates who lack these coping resources portray different and common low self-confidence mostly at the beginning of their imprisonment period. This reaction is different from the misleading impression that most individuals who are imprisoned increase their self-esteem during their custody periods probably from the activities they engage in during their terms like workshops work. The younger the inmate, the stronger the negative effects of the incarceration on the self-esteem. Such is because the individual is still creating his self-confidence and therefore more vulnerable to disturbing and threatening influences (Greve, 2001).
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However, I believe that the results on the negative effects of incarceration do not purely point in one direction. Some studies show that there is impairment of self-esteem for those under imprisonment. However, some other researchers like Hodgkinson show contravening outcome. Worse still, others were not able to identify any such effects. Moreover, several other studies go beyond the question to validate that stigmatized individuals do not always suffer a decrease in self-worth (examples are Moore, Stuewig, & Tangney, 2016). Individuals change in self-esteem, and their acceptance of coping resources which provide a stabilizing role to most inmates is investigated using different longitudinal approaches with three dimensions for the whole period, that is, the start of a prison term, some few months later and towards the end of their imprisonment period. The only fair statement to draw from the researches, therefore, is that the improvement of the self-esteem among the prisoners in their adulthood is purely dependent on personal resources and the situational circumstances. These vary among individuals under imprisonment. The inconclusive/mixed findings of these previous studies further suggest that the personal consequences of incarceration are under the modification of individuals in bearing the burden of a custodial sentence. In fact, the above statement is line with the study on self-stabilization and self-development. In the psychology of self, it is undisputable that the self-esteem of an individual gains enhancement from threatening experiences through coping processes. Accommodative re-interpretations may help buffer the negative outcomes of incarceration on the self-esteem of the individual. Individuals who are positive and flexible may adjust easily to the burdening situation like the prison and therefore show minimal change in self-esteem. The rehabilitative activities in some prisons also go a long way in avoiding the detrimental effects of incarceration. There is a need to find a conclusive statement of the true picture of the self-esteem among the prisoners. What is the cause of such and what is the age distribution of the degree of self-esteem in those in prison? The purpose of this article is to review previous research works on the self-esteem among the adult (18-25 years) who are incarcerated.
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Incomplete conclusions on self-esteem effect of imprisoned men depend on individual differences of how they cope on the burden of the jail sentence. First, the dangers or other situations inmate needs to deal with are mostly a threat to the self. Most of the researchers will actually go into a conclusion that most imprisoned men undergo a change due to the harsh conditions they may face, which may make significant changes to their lives of which may be positive or negative depending on an individual. Most may claim through different relaxing and coping processes an individual can actively stabilize and improve his self-esteem against threatening experiences. This claim is one the few definite results of social psychology. Secondly, sustaining a sense of personal identity, that is an individual ability to maintain extent to act and achieving a status quo practically depends on the stability of the individual and the condition of his self-esteem. To verify whether these coping processes attest to developmental success, they are, highly evaluated with individual’s self-esteem stability. Third, some of the key efforts observed in individual improvement are the process of self, which explain the survival abilities of an individual during unfavorable conditions, challenges, and threats. However, none of the researchers have combined on the two issues of self and coping especially from a developmental point of view (Greve, 2001).
According to Greve (2003), most incarcerated young men improve their self-esteem during imprisonment. He carried the research using the longitudinal approach on 211 participants. Data results from the participants showed that development in self-esteem was dependent on individual’s survival abilities within the prison environment. High accommodative individuals showed earlier and faster increment in their self-esteem. Greve discussed his findings with respect to the growth of the individual during imprisonment and their social life after prison and integration of these individuals with the outer society after release (Greve, 2003). Interaction amongst incarcerated men is the most important impact on prison experience the inmates have during imprisonment. The interactions and social life of these inmates in the informal and unseen environment where they are locked out from the public have a greater influence more than the prison rules, sermons, and other factors on the self-esteem of these inmates. Inmate-inmate relationships and communities are important especially now that there is the division along color and race lines behind bars. Often, we find that black men get high rates of incarcerated than men from other racial groups. Inmates create sects of people of their kind which make them feel secure and in place. This interaction could lead to their rise in self-esteem especially if they are accepted in the groups. However, those who receive rejection often experience low self-esteem (Moore, Stuewig, & Tangney, 2016.)
According to DeVeaux (2013), a former inmate shares his experiences and how it affected him psychologically while in prison. He mentions that studies indicate that some inmates suffer from psychological harm while others do not. The psychological harm effect varies in depth in all inmates whether long-term or short-term confinement in jail. Prison experience is unlike any other, it is neither normal nor natural the conditions are not all friendly neither all so habitable nobody wishes ever to be there. The constant watch from guards and lack of privacy for the inmates may cause some psychological discomfort. This may at times cause an inmate to through mental deterioration and droopiness, endure personality changes and lose a sense of personal identity. This has led most researchers to draw up a conclusion that this may lead an inmate being identified with posttraumatic stress disorders and psychiatric disorders such as regular panic attacks, depression, and paranoia. This greatly affects their life after release; it becomes difficult adjusting to the society and integrating with the society as a whole. On the other hand, incarceration may trigger different behaviors in an individual and also their sense of self. Some may show signs of helplessness, significant dependence on others, introversion and poor decision-making capabilities (DeVeaux, 2013).
According to DeVeaux (2013), incarcerations may cause more of emotional and psychological punishments. These punishments appear mostly as a hindrance to the goal life growths of the inmate such as his defensive system, self-esteem or overall security. An individual may not be aware of these punishments which are as a result of deprivations. Inmates’ losses such as heterosexual relationships, material impoverishment, liberty, personal inadequacy, and persona security cause these deprivations. Most researchers after running several experiments have come to the conclusion that adjusting to prison life is difficult to just anyone. Besides, experiences of the inmates while in prison can develop new thinking and acting habits and acting that are dysfunctional and may permanently change the individuals who go throw them (DeVeaux 2013).
Experiences that take place in confinement facilities may significantly affect an individual and how they view the world in which they live. A lot of violence that takes place in the prisons during incarceration may lower an inmate’s self-esteem or upgrades one's self-esteem depending on the role played while an inmate. Most of the aggressive and strong inmates find pleasure in exploiting the weak inmates physically and mentally in the form of prison rape, violence leading to death, and ordering other inmates around. The violence shows inmates as aggressors and victims and their acts are only visible to the inmates who participate in this community and understand how the prison works. Images of violent actions may get stuck in them for a very long time even upon release. This builds in them a lot of fear which may be noticed easily as they become so aware of the little things happening around them, DeVeaux who was previously an inmate confirmed.
On a research about effects of stigma on incarcerated men by Moore, Stuewig, and Tangney (2016) shows that they have a major influence on their social behavior and self-esteem after the inmates are released from prison. These researchers used 163 inmates whom most shown poor adjustments to ran their longitudinal research of whom show poor adjustment in psychological health symptoms, substance use dependence, and community adjustment. They collected data in three instances: after entry into the prison, just before the inmates are released from the prison and one-year after their release to run their findings. The participation was voluntary, and the inmates were aware of this and were assured of confidentiality. The data results show that social identity which includes connectedness with the groups, group identification, and attitudes towards these groups influences how these individuals self-esteem. All 163 inmates completed the assessments just before their release to the community; however, not all completed the research an year after their release. According to their research, if an inmate identifies strongly with a certain stigmatized group often display a strong relationship in perceived stigma and an increase in their self-esteem once they are out of the prison. Another issue that they discussed is that inmates with racial minorities cope with development of self-esteem in a different manner than non-minorities. Most of the inmates who perceive high stigma tend to have less self-efficacy when it comes to attaining employment or interacting with other members of the community. Another survey showed that there exists a connection between adopted homophobia, sexual identity and self-esteem. Men of color who engaged in gay sex showed a positive relationship in HIV risk behaviors and a low self-worth and esteem. Most of the inmates who have sex with their fellow men portray poor mental health, high sexual infection risk behaviors, and internalized fear causing a poor social relationship with other people.
Imprisoned reinforces toxic masculinity among male inmates which brings hostile and violent behaviors and also self-esteem. There is a major relationship between self-esteem and race, social identity, sexual identity, inmate-inmate relationship, HIV risk behaviors and depression. These factors are the major contributors to inmate’s self-esteem while in prison and after they are released to the community. Self-esteem refers to the subjective emotional response that the inmate have towards themselves and is likely associated with good health and the inmates’ capability of coping with adverse circumstances. Incarcerated males may adopt prison values from their social identity groups as a form of survival of the confinement pains. Most inmates who have low-esteem can result in having psychological distress, antisocial behavior, and depression. It is, therefore, wise that they receive counseling to help with these cases.
From the above studies, during incarceration period for most male inmates, their self-esteem stability depends on immunizing and survival coping reactions. The inmate-inmate relationship in most prisons contributes to the understanding of the relationship between inmates in the prison community. These relationships are associated with criminal activities or violence as they mainly focus on harmful associations. However, some of these relationships strengthen some individuals both socially and mentally improving their self-esteem. Racial tensions, gay sex, rape, and in prison fail in many accounts and narrows the relationship and social understandings among these incarcerated men. Inmate relationships have greater influence than all official admonishments, rules, and sermons in individuals’ interactions and social life. Prison environment is a controlled jungle where the strong will and aggressive inmates exploit the weak, and in most cases, the weak are aware of it. Prison influences the development of the attitudes and values of an incarcerated individual in many ways. Besides, incarcerated men who involve in gay sex in most prisons demonstrate an increased HIV risk behaviors and a negative relationship in their self-confidence. Some of these inmates especially the weak have low self-esteem while in prison and also after their release to the community. They may feel unwanted and as if they were used while serving their terms. However, the inmates in control (aggressive ones) may show positive self-esteem as they seem to believe they are the leaders.
Incarcerated men who do not possess either immunizing or accommodative coping resources portray less confidence in self-worth particularly in the beginning of their imprisonment period. However, their self-esteem may change as time progresses to either improved or worsened self-admiration. Many people believe that development of self-esteem during the period of jail period is because of the improved inmate-inmate relationship and the feeling of belonging. From the above studies, survival coping resources improves in the latter period of imprisonment increasing the immunizing reactions. Prison victimization is also another contribution of self-esteem effects. Aggressive and strong inmates find pleasure in exploiting the weak inmates physically and mentally. This situation shows inmates as aggressors and victims and their acts are only visible to the inmates who participate in this community and understand how the prison works. Violent assaults such as rape and deaths are common in many inmate communities, and most prisoners suffer from violent assault both physically and mentally. Prison rape is a form of physical and emotional extreme harassment to the weak inmates while it's a form of creating or reinforcing hierarchy among the aggressive inmates. The aggressive inmates use prison rape to demand absolute loyalty to the more vulnerable inmates. Inmates are full of fear, horror, and violence which majorly affect their social association with other people. Most inmates who possess this low-esteem can result in having psychological distress, antisocial behavior, and depression and it is advisable that upon release from the prison or while in prison, that they receive counseling to help with these cases. The aggressive inmates should receive punishment to prevent them from taking advantage of the weak inmates.
In a nutshell, the development of the self-esteem among the prisoners in their adulthood is purely dependent on personal resources and the situational circumstances. These vary among individuals under imprisonment. As discussed, race, social identity, sexual identity, inmate-inmate relationship, HIV risk behaviors and depression are the major contributors to inmate’s self-esteem while in prison. However, one should note that not all inmates receive negative effects during the period of their term and that the pain of imprisonment impairs the self-esteem of the inmate.
References
DeVeaux, M. (2013). The Trauma of the Incarceration Experience. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review , 48 (1), 257-277. Retrieved from http://harvardcrcl.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/DeVeaux_257-277.pdf
Greve, W. (2001). Imprisonment of juveniles and adolescents: Deficits and demands for developmental research. Applied Developmental Science, 5, 21 –36
Greve, W., & Enzmann, D. (2003). Self-esteem maintenance among incarcerated young males: Stabilisation through accommodative processes. International Journal of Behavioral Development , 27 (1), 12-20.
Greve, W., Enzmann, D., & Hosser, D. (2001). The stabilization of self-esteem among incarcerated adolescents: Accommodative and immunizing processes. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology , 45 (6), 749-768. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.482.6438&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Moore, K. E., Stuewig, J. B., & Tangney, J. P. (2016). THE EFFECT OF STIGMA ON CRIMINAL OFFENDERS’ FUNCTIONING: A LONGITUDINAL MEDIATIONAL MODEL*. Deviant Behavior , 37 (2), 196–218. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4788463/
Moore, K., Stuewig, J., & Tangney, J. (2013). Jail Inmates’ Perceived and Anticipated Stigma: Implications for Post-release Functioning. Self and Identity : The Journal of the International Society for Self and Identity , 12 (5), 527–547. Retrived from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4103667/
