Albert Bandura founded the social learning theory in the 1960s, which later on evolved to social cognitive theory (SCT) in the 1980s. The theory posits that learning is best attained through observation of other models or elements. It emphasizes the role of the society and its implications on external and internal reinforcement of learning and knowledge. The theory takes into account individual's previous experiences, which in turn take into consideration the behavioral actions that follow. These past experiences influence expectations and reinforcements. All these elements play a pivotal role in shaping how an individual engages in a certain behavior and the reasons behind such a decision. The SCT was established to expound on how people regulate their conduct or behavior through reinforcement and control in order to achieve a goal-oriented conduct that can be sustained for a given period.
The social cognitive theory has five constructs namely reciprocal determinism, behavioral capability, observational learning, reinforcements, expectations, and self-efficacy. Reciprocal determinism entails "the dynamic reciprocal interaction of a person, environment, and behavior” (Bandura, 1999). The individual is said to have a set of acquired experiences that he or she derives from the external social concept. Behavioral capability, on the other hand, denotes a person's ability to perform a certain behavior through pertinent knowledge and skills. As such, an individual must know what he or she ought to do and how to do it well. The third construct, observational learning," asserts that people can witness and observe a behavior as conducted by others and then reproduce the said actions" (Bandura, 1999). This is visible especially when it comes to modeling of desired behaviors.
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Reinforcements are responses (external or internal) to an individual's conduct or behavior that may either promote or discourage the behavior. Therefore, reinforcements can either be positive or negative. It is established that is the construct of the social cognitive theory that is similar to the reciprocal relationship between environment and behavior. The fifth construct of SCT is the expectations which pinpoint the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior. Before taking any course of action, individuals review the anticipated consequences that they derive from past experiences. Lastly, self-efficacy focuses on individual confidence "in his or her ability to perform a behavior successfully” (Bandura, 1993). Self-efficacy is tied to an individual's capabilities and other personal attributes.
The social cognitive theory has been strongly advocated by educators. It has been seen as effective in promoting desirable behaviors and the construction of knowledge. This is strongly tied to the fact that schools are social structures which play an active role in shaping learners into productive members of the society. Social structures "are created by human activity to organize, guide and regulate human affairs in given domains by authorized rules and sanctions" (Bandura, 1999). Schools can rely on the various constructs of the social cognitive theory that capitalize on the capacity of individuals to learn. For example, modeling is a common aspect of learning or adopting new behaviors that can be incorporated into a school social structure or architecture. By bringing in mentors and exemplary students as models for others, institutions of learning can provide individuals with a template of learning. In the Christian worldview, modeling is espoused where parents are encouraged to act as the models of morality to the young ones. Additionally, Christians are encouraged to be righteous in their actions to serve as an example to the non-believers that are not well-versed with the Christian doctrine.
The theory as advanced by Bandura can be effective in classroom management. The Behavior Specific Praise (BSP) is one strategy that can be employed by teachers to reinforce the desired knowledge and behaviors in a class. Behavior Specific praise is defined as “an evidence-based classroom management practice that can improve student behavior by providing specific acknowledgment of appropriate behavior or conduct" (Moffat, 2011). Many education experts believe due to its psychological impact can enhance both academic and social outcomes for learners. Praise targeting specific behaviors is, therefore, deemed effective rather than the general appreciation extended to a recipient.
BSP is seen as advantageous as it is non-intrusive as an educational approach. It is hailed by educators as it increases time-on-tasks, instructional time, and correct responses. In its effective application, teachers may see less time being spent on correcting undesired behaviors. The teacher applies the BSP by making classroom expectations clearer (Moffat, 2011) . This, in turn, fosters a positive classroom environment. Moffat (2011) supported BSP for being immediate, non-judgmental and sincere. Teachers are, therefore, encouraged to give meaningful praise once a learner adopts the desired behavior. The bible advocates for such behavioral reinforcement with the expectation of the teachers in the society to guide the learners in the most non-judgmental manner. As a reinforcement technique, researchers argue that the BSP approach ought to be characterized by immediacy (Moffat, 2011) . This means an instructor should be keen on learners’ wiling and that make an effort to learn new behaviors. Additionally, in the classroom context praise must be availed in the manner that the learner prefers it to be given out. For example, some learners prefer being praised privately, such as using a congratulatory note while others respond better to public praise, such as applause by the rest of the class.
The BSP must be implemented in consideration of three factors which are namely: student, effort, and outcome. The teacher must identify the student by name to pinpoint the needed specificity. This should be followed by the appreciation of the effort to change or adopt appropriate behavior. The implication of this sequence matches John Dewey's assertion "establishing of character should be a comprehensive aim of school instruction and discipline" (Moffat, 2011). The possible outcome should be identified. In many cases, unexpected praise emanating from the teacher may be effective. The BSP, in this case, may end up being an integral tool, particularly when establishing a modeling template for the learners. They easily understand which behaviors to adopt and whose example should they rely upon for the teachers to extend specific praise to them. Pundits caution that BSP should be used sparingly, as it may end up making the students fixated on pleasing the instructors rather than internalizing the learning experience.
Self-efficacy learning should be encouraged within an educational set up as part of the SCT application. Bandura defined it as "the belief in one's capabilities to set goals in specific tasks and then execute the courses of action required to attain them" (Bandura, 1993). Many learners do not have self-efficacy, and therefore teachers must be focused on aiding them in achieving this attribute (Bandura, 1993). The first step is to use the experiences of others. The Christian doctrine encourages self-efficacy by alluding to God's strength and mercy Phil 4:13. A teacher should ensure that part of the class time activity must incorporate vicarious experiences of former students or role models in the society. For instance, by letting learners know that Albert Einstein was a slow talker as a child may encourage them to accept their shortcomings and work on them. The key thing is that once learners get to see individuals similar to them succeed, it reinforces the notion that they too possess abilities to become successful. The teachers must also incorporate practical learning. The leaners should be involved in at least 60% of the class time. This will be fundamental in enabling the students to achieve success. A slight improvement, for instance, in a science experiment session at the laboratory may make a learner appreciate his or her individual efforts. Moreover, teachers must enhance self-efficacy by valuing what they teach and expressing confidence that their students can learn and grasp it. The next step in the classroom environment involves the provision of activities that learners can attempt and accomplish with a practical amount of determination.
During class, students should be encouraged to carry out self-assessment. This can be done at the end of the class where the learners answer questions highlighting areas they may need help. It turns them into active agents of learning as they are encouraged "to think about what they do/ do not understand and helps them see how they are getting smarter" (Bandura, 1993). It goes a long way in convincing the students that they are making progress as far as the classroom activities are concerned. For self-efficacy in learners to work, the teachers must also have belief in their abilities to make a difference in the learner’s lives. This radiates in the classroom and consequently makes have the learners have a sense of self-efficacy beliefs. As aforementioned, a teacher can divulge details of his or her self-efficacy beliefs as a notable measure in encouraging the learners to achieve such skill.
To ensure effective learning takes place in the classroom setting, it is prudent that teachers adopt differentiated instruction. Differentiated learning has four elements or attributes namely; content, process, products, and learning environment. The content can be differentiated in cognizance of the different learner abilities. For instance, the teachers may present learning material through both auditory and visual means (Niesyn, 2009) . This will cater for all learners who in turn may try applying the learned information in their ways. The content may also be digested through group work activities in the classroom. Within the groups, peer models may emerge who may help others learn and integrate the new information better. The groups are also important for teachers who may choose "to reteach an idea or skill for struggling learners or to extend the thinking or skills of advanced learners” (Niesyn, 2009). As for the process, classroom activities can be differentiated to ensure that the learners derive much information as possible" (Niesyn, 2009) . This can be attained through the provision of activities that are tiered. The learners will pursue these tiered activities with matching dexterity and comprehension but advance with varied heights of support or complexity .
As part of the differentiated instruction to facilitate application tenets of social cognitive theory, the teachers can differentiate products of learning. A key example is the use of rubrics that extend and match the varied skills of the students. This allows the development of self-efficacy. The learning environment can be made more differentiated to enhance learning and modeling of behaviors. The classroom must be safe and conducive for active learning. Additionally, there is a need to have a flexible environment that helps students to access help from peers and teachers.
Learner motivation is key in promoting learning and adoption of appropriate behaviors. Choice making is one strategy that can be adopted to encourage learners to adopt desired behaviors and construct new knowledge (Niesyn, 2009) . Studies indicate anti-learning behaviors are displayed by students as a protest against being forced to participate in activities that they deem undesirable. In this case, a teacher is expected to provide alternatives when it comes to the learning process. This helps the student to own the process and optimize it fully. Choice-making is also integral in enhancing a student's self-efficacy. The independence promotes self-belief which translates to the construction of knowledge and performance of desired behaviors (Yilmaz, 2011). Criterion-specific rewards are vital in enhancing the students' morale. Studies deem it an effective strategy as it is "non-aversive" and "allows the individual to control a situation in a positive way rather in a negative way" (Yilmaz, 2011). The rewards are handed out to learners who adopt certain behaviors. It reinforces the behaviors and sees to it learners focusing on being better each day in cognizance of the benefits accrued to the desired behaviors.
The social cognitive theory appeals to me as a learner and professional in many ways. As a learner, it underlies the experiences that have guided through academic life. I have learned from experiences forged through my interaction with different social settings. It is these interactions that have modeled my behaviors that I have carried with me to date. Through observational learning, I have managed to derive concepts and knowledge from the best in the society. With supportive teachers and effective protocols, knowledge and appropriate behaviors have been reinforced in me.
Professionally, the social cognitive theory has aided me in my career progress. I have grown from a basic level through modeling my mentors' behaviors and conduct. My supervisors have taught me pertinent skills knowingly and unknowingly through observational learning. My self-efficacy fueled my self-confidence has been core in my journey experimenting with different concepts that I have ended up applying in my social life. As such, I believe the social cognitive theory can be applied in my classroom. Through peer-modeling, the students can emulate desirable behaviors which are core in the learning process. Rewards will also be extended to the learners to reinforce behaviors and knowledge. The theory will ensure there is differentiated learning which will see to it that learners thrive in environments that optimize their unique abilities and self-efficacy.
References
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist , 28 (2), 117-148. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2802_3
Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory: An agentic perspective. Asian Journal of Social Psychology , 2 (1), 21-41. doi:10.1111/1467-839x.00024
Jolivette, K., Wehby, J. H., Canale, J., & Massey, N. G. (2001). Effects of choice-making opportunities on the behavior of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders , 26 (2), 131-145. doi:10.1177/019874290102600203
Moffat, T. K. (2011). Increasing the teacher rate of behaviour specific praise and its effect on a child with aggressive behaviour problems. Weaving educational threads. Weaving educational practice , 12 (1), 51-59.
Niesyn, M. E. (2009). Strategies for success: Evidence-based instructional practices for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth , 53 (4), 227-234. doi:10.3200/psfl.53.4.227-234
Yilmaz, K. (2011). The cognitive perspective on learning: Its theoretical underpinnings and implications for classroom practices. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas , 84 (5), 204-212. doi:10.1080/00098655.2011.568989
