The Representative and the Availability Heuristic
Representative heuristic refers to a mental shortcut that enable individuals arrive at decisions by using mental prototype that fits the information received. For instance, if someone refers to a kind-hearted and caring aged man who loves children, most people will assume the described man is a grandfather. In our mind, she first in the description, so we put him in that category. In contrast, availability heuristic refers to a shortcut within the mind, that help individuals arrive at decisions depending on the way it is easy to connect that thing with the mind. In short, individual mind follow the easy way of making a judgment or decision. For instance, what percentage of people in the United States carry gun for self-defense? Most individuals will mention a high percentage owing to number of incidences captured in the news regarding gun violence in the US. Yet, very few incidences involve use of gun for self-defense. In fact, according to Department of Homeland Security, very few individuals get a chance to use their firearm in case of an attack.
Entity and Incremental Theorists
Theorists have come up with explanations on why some learners feel motivated to put efforts in studies, while others resign to helplessness and self-defeating. Entity theorists hold that, students with an entity view tend to display high desire of proving themselves to others. Entity theorists always avoid situations that they deem challenging. They strive to look smart in front of others. In contrast, incremental theorists argue that, students who assume incremental view tend to view learning as a chance of getting chances to improve oneself. They approach learning as a chance to face challenges and as such, they put more effort.
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Groupthink
According to Irving L. Janis, groupthink is a psychological situation in which individuals strive to reach a consensus within a group. In other words, people discard their personal beliefs and instead accommodate the opinions or beliefs of the group. To avoid groupthink, Janis recommends that leaders should allow members to express their ides or provide dissenting opinions on the proposed ideas. Notably, members can equally be put into small groups to arrive at ideas that will help find a solution. Also, leaders in the groups should assign tasks and avoid giving their opinions. Group members should be given time to generate own ideas.
Self-Presentation Strategies
Compliance is when an individual embraces influence in the hope of getting favorable reaction. For instance, an individual can comply to become a state witness to avoid being convicted. Identification is when an individual embraces influence to sustain a certain self-defining relationship such as when one puts up with a problematic intimate relationship to avoid being called single. Internalization is accepting influence simply because it is intrinsically rewarding. For instance, one can avoid offering professional help to a client to achieve peace of mind. Clients who are a nuisance make someone’s work difficult.
The 7 self-presentation strategies developed by Jones & Pittman include intimidation, self-handicapping, modesty, supplication, ingratiation, self-promotion and exemplification.
Ingratiation strategy is familiar as it strives to get other individuals to like someone. For instance, one can opt to do favors to the family members in order for them to like him or her.
Self-promotion strategy is one that strives to convince other individuals regarding our competence. It is a tendency to try to get others to think that one is talented, intelligent or capable. For instance, one can attend a job interview and purport to be knowledgeable in a certain field in a bid to convince the one hiring that he or she has the skills needed.
Intimidation is a strategy used by most individuals in order to be feared. People use it to appear powerful and tough. For instance, to maximize the productivity of employees, the manager can use this strategy.
Exemplification is a strategy used by individuals to exaggerate the degree they have endured hardships. For instance, some employees can portray themselves as undergoing tough time to seek sympathy from their boss.
Supplication is a strategy where individuals exaggerate their deficiencies and weaknesses publicly. For instance, women in the old cultures were supposed to appear helpless to attract suitors.
Self-handicapping is a strategy of creating an obstacle to one’s performance to excuse failure. For instance, an employee might blame inefficient tools as an excuse for failing to deliver quality work.
Modesty is a strategy that involves under-representing one’s trait or contributions. For instance, one might appear less qualified at a place of work to get assistance from fellow employees.
