Assignment One
Once a student can read connected text, they can move on to answering any comprehension questions put forward to them. So as to develop these literacy skills, educators can employ the use of read-aloud so as to allow the students to understand the texts. For students who suffer from intellectual disabilities, educators can use picture arrays to help them read comprehension texts. The use of phonological awareness can assist students in reading which will result in them acquiring the necessary literacy skills. Through this instructional strategy, the educators will help the students in the formation of different words through sound manipulation (Browder et al., 2014).
It is important for students who suffer from moderate to severe intellectual disabilities to become conversant with basic mathematical operations and functions. The use of task-analytical stories accompanied by stories will help students in developing mathematical skills. Educators can also employ the use of mathematical, manipulative. These are physical objects that are used as educational tools in helping the students with disabilities to get hands-on concepts about math. Mathematical manipulative are employed in the entire math-instruction teachings across all grades.
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The use of cognitive instructional strategies such as letter identification and imitation can help a student develop their writing skills. In this method, the teacher can produce some the letter and let the student trace it as per the teacher’s model. The teacher and student will then discuss the similarities and differences between the two letters, and student retraces it if it is widely different from the teacher. According to Hale and Fiorello (2004), the use of graph paper can assist the student with developing their writing skills. The students will be required to fit each letter into a square on the graph paper and another square as space between words. In time the student will gain accuracy on how to correctly write which will later be transferred to the lined paper.
For most of the students who suffer from learning disabilities, they do not have the same learning skills as the non-disabled children. As such, there is need to use instructional strategies that will not just help them academically, but fulfill each of their needs in relation to education. The strategies named above are evidence-based interventions which have thoroughly been tested to ensure that they meet all the needs of the children with learning disabilities as per each academic domain. As such, once they are used, the students will have a chance to learn what other non-disabled children are learning for they have the basic literacy, writing, and math skills which they can use in general education class (Westling et al.,2015).
References
Browder, D. M., Wood, L., Thompson, J., & Ribuffo, C. (2014). Evidence-based practices for students with severe disabilities. Retrieved on 17 June 2017, from http://ceedar.education.ufl.edu/tools/innovation-configurations.
Hale, J.B., &Fiorello, C.A. (2004). School Psychology: A practitioner’s handbook . New York: Guilford Press
Westling, D. L., Fox, L., & Carter, E. W. (2015 ). Teaching students with severe disabilities
(5th Ed.). Columbus, Ohio: Pearson.
Assignment Two
According to Spooner et al. 2012, systemic instructions have to be used when it comes to dealing with students who suffer from learning disabilities. In developing these instructions, an educator must first define an observable, measurable skill that a student needs to be taught. This is then followed by developing a set of responses that will be used by the educator, and they are entered into a data sheet to allow for continued monitoring of their effectiveness. The final phase is whereby an educator must develop a response prompting system that will be used with the instructional strategies.
Simultaneous Prompting
In this prompting strategy, the educator will provide the child with a prompt simultaneously with the targeted stimulus. However, after the educator has undertaken a couple of instructional procedures, the prompt is removed top allow for the child to carry out the task alone. According to Morse and Schuster (2004), this is the most useful prompt strategy for an educator who wants to teach chained or discrete tasks. The invention of this prompting procedure was so as minimizes the occurrence of an error. As such, an educator will use this type of prompt strategy if the student does not respond to a particular task within a specified period of responding to it incorrectly. However, in the child respond sin time or correctly to a particular task, the educator will instead provide positive reinforcement.
Most-to-Least Prompting
Aykut, (2012), states that, through this promoting strategy, there is a decrease in assistance from the educator. The teacher will use a hierarchy of prompts which range from the most to least intrusive. The targeted stimulus is presented together with the most intrusive prompt. In case the performance of the student is correct, positive reinforcement is provided by the teacher. However, the educator will continue to offer prompts to the child until he/she attains a set performance level using the most intrusive prompt. As such, a less intrusive prompt is later used until the child attains the set level of performance. In case the child will have the ability to respond to the stimulus without any assistance from the educator, the prompt process is withheld.
Graduated Guidance
The implementation of this prompt is such that, it accompanies the stimulus required by an educator. As an educator introduces a specific task for the student, he/she will accompany it with a necessary amount of prompt. Once the child is given an opportunity to perform the task, the teacher immediately withdraws the prompts. In case the student does not continue to perform the task once the prompt is removed or performs it incorrectly, the teacher will re-introduce the prompts immediately and withdraw them again. In case the child can successfully complete the assigned task wholly or just a little bit, positive reinforcement is provided to him/her by the teacher. However, no reinforcement is provided for a student who resists after completing the task.
For children who suffer from learning disabilities, there is need to use naturalistic and milieu teaching strategies at times to help them attain academic excellence. Through these teaching strategies, they allow for an educator and the children to have some forms of interactions that will not just see the educator provide instructions based procedures to a child, but likewise, assistance as the student needs it. This is what brings about the use of prompts within this environment. As seen, the prompt allows the child to correct any errors that he/she might encounter when performing a particular task. A reduction in the error occurrence rate will see the child performing their entire task without any assistance from another party which makes them have the ability to participate in general education classroom with non-disabled children.
References
Aykut, C. (2012). Effectiveness and efficiency of constant-time delay and most-to-least prompt Procedures in teaching daily living skills to children with intellectual disabilities. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 12, 366-373.
Morse, T. E., & Schuster, J. W. (2004). Simultaneous prompting: A review of the literature. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities , 39, 153-168.
Spooner, F., Knight, V., Browder, D., & Smith, B. (2012). Evidence-based practices for teaching academics to students with severe disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 33, 374-387 .doi:10.1177/0741932511421634.
Assignment Three
Peer-Mediated Instruction
In this type of instructional strategy, it has been evidenced that the tutee and the tutor will booth gain academic and social benefits. In this kind of strategy, the student with disabilities-tutee receives instructions from another student of the same age grade belonging to the general education classroom (Heron et al., 2006). Peer tutors are educated to integrate active student reporting, opportunities to report, comment, and fortification in instructional periods. In different schools, there has been a class-wide tutoring of the peers so as to give them the necessary skills they will require when it comes to the delivery of instructions to the tutees. Peer-mediated instructions can be used to teach different skills to students with severe disabilities. For example, the peer-mediated instruction can be used in teaching the students money and comprehension skills, oral reading and expressive language skills to fifth-grade students. In the instructions, they can be grouped into ten 30 minutes training periods of which after their completion, the children should have the ability to plan a list of the target items, delivery of consequences, feedback and prompts. Peer-mediated instructions are also known for promoting academic engagements and social interactions among the students.
Peers who offer instructional strategies to students with disabilities do not just provide them with effective tutoring but rather, also provide some form of support (Heron et al., 2006). These tutors are also able to improve their personal, academic performances they offer tutoring to the peers suffering from learning disabilities. For most of the peers, they are taught on how to teach specific c skills to the students with severe disabilities, as such, they come up with instructional procedures that will match up the skills set. As the performance of the students increases, the peers are provided with more training on how to improve the students with disability performance levels.
Embedded Instruction
Embedded instructions have been used for more than 60 years and have been used in supporting the teaching community and daily living skills of students both disabled and non-disabled (Spooner et al., 2011). Following different studies that have been carried out over the years, it has been evidenced that the use of embedded instructions can be applied in teaching students with disabilities and helps them acquire the required academic and life skills. The first step in using embedded instructions is by defining an observable, measurable skill that is to be taught. These skills can be categorized as being chained, one step or discrete. Once an educator has defined a particular skill that needs to be taught, a data sheet is used to enter the student's progress about the ongoing instructional strategy being used. In case the progress is too slow, the teachers will be forced to re-adjust their instructional strategies or come up with better ones. After a data sheet has been created, the educator must come up with a response prompting and fading procedures that will be used for the instructional target skill. Reinforcement plans should accompany the use of prompting strategies (Spooner et al., 2011). These will include different motivational factors such as praises the educator will give a student who wholly or partly completes a task.
Through using embedded instructions, they have carefully been set after a thorough assessment of the individual student's needs. An educator must first have in mind what skill the students is lagging behind in and come up with instructional strategies that will meet and fulfill the particular defective skill. The using of data sheets allows an educator to monitor the student's progress and record their daily performance. In case the data collected indicates negative performance, the educator will know that the instructional strategies being used are defective.
Antecedent Strategies
According to Brosnan and Healy (2011), positive behavior support systems have been used in coming up with positive outcomes for children who suffer from learning disabilities. Through the employment of antecedent strategies, an educator is given the ability to arrange a particular learning environment in such a member that it will elicit the desired behaviors. For children who suffer from learning disabilities, they might function properly in one environment and negatively in another. An example is through the use of visual schedules and social stories. By using antecedent strategies, a child is expected to have an improvement in a particular behavior. An example of a student who suffers from, a severe behavioral disorder such as being calm when alone and showing negative behavior while in a group. It indicates that such as a child has social interaction disorders, however, through using antecedent strategies, the child is expected to have an improvement on how they interact with others.
A high number of children who suffer from moderate to severe disabilities may end up showing negative behaviors which indicate that they will need positive behavior support systems. So as to come up with such a system, an educator has to carry out a functional assessment of the child so as to determine the behavior(s) that needs change. The use of antecedent strategies will provide a perfect foundation upon which the educator will come up with proper instructional strategies and an environment that befits a particular skill development.
References
Brosnan, J., & Healy, O. (2011). A review of behavioral interventions for the treatment of aggression in individuals with developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal , 32, 437-446. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.12.023.
Heron, T. E., Villareal, D. M., Yao, M., Christianson, R. J., & Heron, K. M. (2006). Peer tutoring systems: Applications in the classroom and specialized environments. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties , 22, 27-45. Doi: 10.1080/10573560500203517.
Spooner, F., Browder, D. M., & Mims, P. (2011a). Evidence-based practices. In D. M. Browder & F. Spooner (Eds.), Teaching students with moderate and severe disabilities (pp. 92-125). New York, NY: Guilford.
Assignment Four
Discrete Trial Learning
In this type of strategy, the teaching method is broken down into simplified and straightforward steps. Instead of an educator teaching the students an entire skill at once, it is broken down into small steps and is reorganized using discrete trails that will teach each step one time at a go (Smith, 2001). Within discrete trial learning, an educator is required to ensure each phase within the trial, and they must be defined and scripted, and it must be followed. Through these steps, the educator will have a chance to identify which teaching methods are working and which are not. An example in the case of implementing this strategy is in case a student is asked to point out a red and blue card placed at the table. An educator will place the card and ask the students to show the red card, and in case student points it out; positive reinforcement is provided by the teacher. In the second discrete trial learning, the teacher places the two colored cards and asks the student to point out the blue card in this case once a student points it out, positive reinforcement is provided. From the discrete trial learning, a student must point out the correct card so as to indicate that they teaching strategies are effective (Smith, 2001). In case the student points out to a wrong color card, the teacher will have to rework the strategies being used.
Pivotal Response
This is a naturalistic interventions strategy that is a resultant of the Applied Behavior Analysis. Through this strategy, it does not target the individual behaviors of the students' one at a time but rather; it focuses on the pivotal developmental areas of the child. These include social interactions, response to a variety of cues and self-management. By targeting such critical areas of the child, it will not only lead to tremendous improvements in them but also other areas that had not been specifically targeted by the pivotal response strategy. The different motivational strategies that this method uses are amalgamated through interpolation as often as possible. It is the duty of the child to determine what activities and objects will be implemented in the pivotal response.
In developing a pivotal response strategy, the program should be in such a manner that it will not just meet the needs of the student at school but also at home. Any typical segment is made up of at most six stages in which it targets social skills, language and plays using unstructured and structured interactions. In case the performance of the student is confident, the focus of each lesson will be changed so as to accommodate more advanced goals.
Routine-Based Instructions
The routine that occurs within the natural environment will help the educator in coming up with a practical framework that will contribute to support the students with disabilities. In case the student is familiar with a particular set of routine, the educator will focus on scaffolding new and more advanced learning outcomes based on the initial experiences. In case an educator decided to use these routines, they can assimilate them into the daily routines of the child so as not to disrupt what the child is doing (Cooper et al., 2007). This integration of routines into regular daily routines of the child will see that what they are being taught becomes functional and meaningful to the student. In task analysis, the overall task is broken down into smaller components. Through this, an educator will have an easy time identifying which step will require extra instruction. After the development of task analysis, chaining procedures are used in teaching the particular task. This can be through forwarding or backward chaining. In the former, the student is taught beginning from the first step, and no progression is made until he/she fully mastered it. In the latter, the student is taught starting with the last step, and no progression is made until the child fully master the step.
References
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E, and Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied Behavior Analysis (2 nd Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall
Smith, T. (2001). Discrete Trial Training in the Treatment of Autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities , 16, 86-92. Doi: 10.1177/108835760101600204.
Assignment Five
It is the duty of teachers to ensure that they determine how well their students will do at school. However, some of the strategies they employ might have a higher impact than others. According to research, it is only by using evidence-based instructions will the result from teaching strategies have the largest impact. The research-based instructions are not merely supported by untested theories but rather hard research. They also have a much higher effect on the outcomes of the students as compared to other strategies. They have the ability to be used on not only a single subject are but rather wide range across the grade span. When using research-based instructional strategies, it is important for the teacher to have in place defined goals which will help the educator and students to focus the lesson on what matters the most.
The use of reinforcements should be availed any time a prompting procedure is used. This is aimed at mostly when a student gives a correct response. The reinforcements should include praise and depend on the motivational needs of the students (Copper et al., 2007). When selecting a reinforcement procedure, it should be an item or activity that is used to reinforce a behavior that is not stagnant nor decreases but instead, increase over time. It should, therefore, be associated with an increment in the targeted stimulus. Reinforcements should be rotated so as to avoid satiation. This is through adding a list of potential reinforcers so as to ensure there will always be available options for reinforcements. Reinforcements must be faded over time. This will allow them to be given an adjustable rate of time and with universal praise. When selecting support, it should be one that can be followed consistently. This is so as to assist the child in finding the learning environment more similar to the natural environment. There are two types of reinforcements; continuous and intermittent. In constant reinforcements, they are delivered after every distinct target behavior has been achieved while an intermittent reinforcement is delivered after a set of targeted behaviors have been made and not a single.
An error correction procedure occurs when the educator finds out that the learner has given out an incorrect response during the implementation of an instructional strategy (Magee and Ellis, 2006). The error correction procedures are therefore aimed at ensuring that the learner is taught the correct response and increase his/her interaction with reinforcement eventualities rather than just dowsing the errors. In word supply correctional procedure, the educator will provide the student with all the correct answers in relation to a question in case mistake has been made. By using the discrimination error correctional procedures, the teacher will create a restrictive discrimination within a learner’s repertoire by asking him/her to reply differentially grounded on some feature of the word-based prompt that should have induced an accurate answer but did not (Magee and Ellis, 2006).
References
Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis
(2nd Ed.) . Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Magee, S. K, and Ellis, J. (2006). The role of error-correction procedures in the reinforcement of errors. Behav. Intervent ion. 21, 205-226. Doi:10.1002/bin.217.
Assignment Six
Task analysis and Chained Tasks
Through this strategy, a complex task is broken down into a series of much simpler steps. However, for some individuals who suffer from autism, even the simplest of steps at times might prove to become a challenge for them to complete. As such, it is essential that an educator must first understand what each step entails which will allow him/her to develop a series of instructional strategies that will help the student accomplish each step successfully. In using this type of approach, it can use any of the three methods, competent individuals in a particular task can be observed and how they perform a specific task will be used in documenting the steps. An educator can also consult the assistance of experts in completing the particular task. Finally, the instructors can perform the task on their own and document the steps. During the development of task analysis, it is crucial; for the educator or has in mind the grade level, means of communication and processing abilities. The number of steps in developing the task will also differ including the degree of wording in documenting the steps. The chaining procedure follows the task analysis process whereby the students are now taught how they will perform the steps. This can be from the first or last step, and no progression is made into the next step in case the child has not completed the first step successfully. The use of task analysis and chained assignment strategy will help the students in developing not only their daily skills but also academic and social growth.
Observational Learning
This is at times referred to as the social learning theory. Through this strategy, the learner can change their behavior after they have had a chance to observe the behavior of a model. The behavior of the learner is bound to become affected negatively or positively through the observation process from the model referred to as vicarious punishment. Through this strategy, the learner must be given an opportunity to observe and model the behavior which is bound to lead to a reinforcement that is positive. As for the educator, he/she must ensure that the learning environment is collaborative for most of it is practiced within the basic environmental and social constructs. For the educators, they must have in mind that a student cannot learn a particular behavior in case the surrounding is unfavorable for that behavior. As such, this might lead to the inaccurate assessment being made on the educator's part.
Phonological Awareness
This is a teaching strategy whereby the educator will help the students to learn how they can form words by manipulating sounds. For the students, once they have acquired the phonological awareness skills, they have the ability to make oral rhymes and identify different words. They will be able to determine the number of syllables in a word, and they will have the capacity to recognize words that might end up having similar first sounds like "mother" and "money." Phonemes are known as the smallest units comprising of spoken language, and once they are combined, they will form words and syllables. In an example of the word "cat," it has three phonemes /c/a/t/. By allowing the students to acquire phoneme awareness, it will help them in gaining word and spelling recognition abilities. There are diverse categories of phonological awareness approaches such as syllable, phoneme, onset-rime, rhyme, and word.
Social Stories
According to Reynhout and Carter, (2006), a social story defines circumstances, ability or notion in relations of appropriate social prompts, viewpoints and mutual rejoinders in a vaguely distinct style and arrangement. The aim of using social stories is to oversee accurate social facts in a persevering and supportive method that is easily understood by its addressees. In the case of children who have autism, social stories are mainly used for it is said that the individuals lack" a theory of mind." It has always been pointed out that people who have a theory of mind will have the ability to understand the other person's beliefs and desires. In layman’s language, having a theory of mind is when one indicates that they can be able to put oneself in another’s shoes. In normal social life, one can function through understanding the other person's behavior. As such, for individuals who have autism, they have difficulties in social interaction. As such, the social stories will be used in this case to explain different social circumstances in relations of what another individual might be thinking about and/or why they may conduct themselves in a particular manner; thus plummeting or eliminating the misunderstanding and irregularity. Persons suffering from ASD also have no ability to focus on the details, and thus they might process information as a whole concerning a particular matter. As such, they end up paying attention to details that are of no importance to the current situation which will make them lack the meaning of such happenings. As such, with social stories, they will have the capabilities of piecing together information and coming up with an overall understanding of a particular situation.
Self-Management Strategy
The plans outlined in this strategy will allow the students not only to complete assigned tasks but also to take an active role in checking and buttressing their behavior. The role of any educational program set is to ensure that the student acquires self-independence and reliance. Through self-management, the students will not only improve their behavior, but it will also see them attain academic excellence, time-on-task, and productivity increments. The ability to use the self-management skills will also help the student as they progress into adulthood. They will have the necessary skills to evaluate whatever they do and not rely on others to monitor what they are doing. The main elements of this strategy include; goal setting, behavior monitoring, and progress evaluation. Though self-management, the students will have a chance to study how to distinguish between right and wrong behaviors, monitor their conducts, and reward themselves for suitable conducts. As such, self-management is made up of self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reinforcement (Coyle and Coyle, 2004).
Incidental Learning
When an educator employs the use of this type of strategy, it will be set in a natural environment as divergent to learning from the classroom. Through incidental learning strategy, it is usually devoted to a status quo (incident) that bestows significance to the lesson learned. This teaching strategy has at times been labeled as being the most effective teaching strategy. It is because it will offer the child a chance to learn from an environment that is not full of any pressures yet the child will still get an opportunity to acquire generalization skills the child will learn from the setting he/she is put in. Incidental learning from the natural environment has a lot of advantages and possibilities; however, it can also be done from a controlled setting. An example of this type of strategy implementation is seen in the case whereby an art teacher who is having sketching lesson for his/her students will take them to a park so that they can complete their drawings instead of the classroom.
Antecedent Interventions
Antecedents are things, people or events that instantly follow problem behavior. They can be connected to the period of the day, environs, people present or activities that might be happening from a particular setting. Examples of possible antecedents can include being yelled at or having one’s toy being taken away. The nonexistence of something or being ignored can also be an antecedent. Through antecedent intervention strategies, once the triggers of particular precursors are identified, it will be easy for an educator or specialist to come up with intervention strategies. These will play a huge role towards reducing any yet to come incidence of the problem behavior by excluding the antecedent event, transforming the content or by changing how the content presentation. The information that is used in developing the antecedent strategies is collected during a functional behavioral assessment procedure. The strategies will then be generated using the PBS Planning Tool (Brosnan and Healy, 2011).
TEACCH
The TEACCH employs the use of designed instruction procedures so as to expedite the attainment of educational goals constituting the person's curriculum. When creating the instructional procedures, they should be in such a manner that will optimize the student's learning environment and avoid frustrations. This brings about three essential factors that will see this is possible; organization of the child's physical environment in a such a manner that it is in line with his/her needs, arranging the teaching procedures in such a way that they are predictable and using material that will require little or no adult involvement. According to Mesibov and Shea (2010), the TEACCH intervention strategy is any that will fully support the person's ability to learn, understand and apply learning across different circumstances.
Pictured Systems
The development of pictured systems dates back more than two decades ago when they were developed for use as an alternate communication package for persons who suffered from ASD and other developmental disabilities. By using the pictured-systems, the teaching procedure will involve the individual giving a picture top the "communicative partner." The system will then teach one how the picture can be assimilated into different sentences. The use of this type of strategy is successful among all grade student who might be suffering from physical, communicative and cognitive disabilities. The pictured system undergoes six phases which include; how to communicate, distance and diligence, picture discernment, sentence construction, responding to questions and commenting.
Peer-Mediated Strategy
Peers who are non-disabled have the ability not only to help the disabled students attain academic excellence but also provide them with some element of support. According to Carter et al. (2010), research has proved that the use of peer-mediated strategies led to increased cases of social interactions between the individual who suffer from disabilities and their peers. The peers themselves also benefit from the process for they have also seen an increased improvement in their overall academic performance as they continue offering support to their fellow peers. So as to come up with effective peer-mediated intervention strategies for the children suffering from disabilities, there is a need to follow certain procedures. These methods include bringing about a backing from school staffs, choosing pupils with disabilities who would find involvement in peer set-ups helpful and ascertain a school personnel member who is dedicated to enabling peer supports and who is acquainted with a big number of pupils in the institution. There is also need to ensure that the peers have some form of common interest and are known to the individuals with disabilities. According to Heron et al., (2006), the peers are mainly made up of same grade students who will be taught how to deliver instructions to the tutees. They are essentially removed from the general education classrooms. The instructions that will be offered to the tutees will also help them in acquiring different life skills such as money, oral or comprehension.
Instructional Plan
Esperanza is an eleven-year-old girl, and she moved to the USA when she was eight years old. She is in the fifth grade, and Spanish is her first language. In the case of Esperanza, she has the ability for identifying some English words, but her vocabulary and content compression is dismal. This is due to the fact that she has in most cases written Spanish words in her assignments when it comes to words she cannot put in English. Another aspect of Esperanza is that, when it comes to the classroom, she is calm and does not seem to get involved in most of the class discussions. When put into a group, all she does is stare at the others and does not offer any contributions. Following an ecological baseline assessment of Esperanza, it was found out that during breaks and in the cafeteria, Esperanza always becomes upset when other pupils approach her. Her parents have also cited that she tends to remain indoors and does not involve herself with other students within their neighborhood. From Esperanza's case, it is evident that she suffers from a behavioral disorder and an academic disorder in relation to having English as her second language.
So as to ensure that Esperanza acquires her English Literacy skills, phonological awareness will be used. The use of syllabication will help Esperanza to decode any words that are multisyllabic in nature. During the initial stages of the lesson, Esperanza and other ELLs will be introduced too much simpler words such as dad, hat, etc. made up of only three phonemes. As the lesson progresses, words made up of more than three phonemes will be introduced such as “money" and "mother." However, such words can easily leave their minds. Through syllabication, they will have a chance to find out that they can quickly put together words that have comparable syllable spelling configurations. This will allow Esperanza and other ELLs not just to spell them out but likewise to write and even pronounce them. Peer-mediated instructions will also be used in assisting Esperanza and other ELLs to acquire basic English literacy skills. According to Allington, (2004), this will be based through cross-age tutoring for individual tutoring is at times an expensive method. An educator offering to tutor Esperanza and other ELLs individually will also take a lot of time. However, through peer-mediated instructions, upper-grade students who have English as their first language will be given the necessary training on how they will help Esperanza and her fellow Ells. Through this process, Esperanza will also end up developing the required social skills
As a result of Esperanza's behavioral disorder, she tends to avoid her classmates including peers at home, in the classroom, during breaks, and in the cafeteria. As such, there is a need to come up with a task analysis that will help Esperanza to develop her communication skills. It has widely been known that effective communication is what forms relationships even amongst strangers. As such Esperanza will be involved in a task analysis that will boost her communication skills. The task analysis will include a first aid emergency communication with an operator. It will follow the following steps;
Phone acquisition
Phone picking up
Dialing 9
Dialing 1
Dialing 1
Placing on the ear the phone receiver
Allowing for the operator to first talk
Providing one's phone number, address and full names
An explanation to the operator about the emergency
Waiting for the operator to hang up before one hangs up the phone
Through this tasks analysis, it will show Esperanza that one must first await their chance so that they can converse with another. If she does not give the operator an opportunity to talk but rushes to talk first instead, Esperanza will have to redo the entire process afresh until she gets it right. This will help her in communicating with her friends and in the long run, she will have the ability to interact with others.
Antecedent strategies will also be used in correcting Esperanza's adverse behavioral disorder. This will be through the use of PBS supports to come up with the instructional strategies. As such, there will be a need for an assessment to be carried out from the environment in which Esperanza tends to have an erratic behavior. After identifying the antecedents, the educator will come up with strategies that will reduce the occurrence of the particular antecedents being prevented. This can either be bullying from other students whereby they will be punished in case the teacher notices any such situations.
The word supply correction procedure will be used for the correction of errors. In case Esperanza misspells a word when reading any text assigned to her, the educator will stop her from continuing and say the correct word. The teacher will then tell Esperanza "your turn Esperanza, what word?” The instructor will wait for Esperanza to respond and in case she does it correctly, she will receive a positive reinforcement “Good job." She will be required to begin the sequence from the beginning. However, if she responds incorrectly to the word, the educator will have to repeat the correction procedure from the beginning. The data collected will be informed of scores attained by the students from various tests that will be carried out in relation to the ELLs assessments. The data collection in relation to Esperanza’s interactions will be through observation.
References
Allington, R. L. (2004). Setting the Record Straight. Education Leadership 61(6) 22-25
Brosnan, J., & Healy, O. (2011). A review of behavioral interventions for the treatment of aggression in individuals with developmental disabilities. Res Dev Disabil., 32 (2), 437-46. doi: 10.1016/j.ridd.2010.12.023.
Carter, E. W., Sisco, L. G., Chung, Y. L., & Stanton-Chapman, T. L. (2010). Peer interactions of students with intellectual disabilities and/or autism: A map of the intervention literature. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities , 35, 63-79. doi:10.2511/rpsd.35.3-4.63.
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