The brain is an important organ that serves various critical functions in the human body and is a key part of the central nervous system along with the spinal cord. Protected by the skull, it is mainly made up of the brainstem, cerebellum and cerebrum. Some of the core functions are interpretation of information from the outer world and embodiment of the significance of the soul and mind (Zatorre et al., 2012). The brain also governs various aspects including intelligence, emotion and creativity. In addition, the brain gets information through the five senses of hearing, taste, sight, touch and smell, and uses them to collect the messages or information in a manner that is meaningful to people. Apart from facilitating the storage of information in people’s memory, the brain further controls speech, memory, thoughts movement of legs and arms as well as functions of numerous organs in the body. This paper seeks to explore the major structures of the brain and their influence on cognition and learning in order to enhance understanding of processes that take place in the brain, resulting in the learning of certain behaviors.
Cerebral Cortex
The major brain structures are the cerebral cortex, four lobes, brain stem, cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system and basal ganglic. The cerebral cortex is among the most highly developed brain parts, largest part of the brain, which facilitate the processing of information (Grossberg, 2012). It is the outermost layer of neural tissues found within the cerebrum that is critical for the development of human traits such as human consciousness, higher thinking, language, thinking ability, reasoning and imaginations. The medial longitudinal fissure splits the cortex into two key components: left and right cerebral hemisphere. Basing on function, it consists of sensory areas, motor areas as well as association areas. Found in both the right and left hemispheres, motor areas deal with the control of voluntary movements. Sensory areas process data received from the various senses. On the other hand, the core function of association areas is to facilitate language and abstract thinking. They also enable people to have meaningful perceptual experiences of their surroundings.
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Four Lobes
The cerebral cortex is also categorized into four important sections called lobes: occipital lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe and frontal lobe that are linked to various functions, including auditory perception and reasoning. The frontal lobe is found in front of the brain and in front of the motor cortex that is found close to the central sulcus (Collins & Koechlin, 2012). This lobe receives information from other brain lobes and uses the information to control body movements. Lying beneath the forehead, it is linked to the ability of the brain to reason, plan, move, organize make facial expressions, solve problems, serial task, control inhibition, initiate and control behaviors, and pay attention. Damage of the frontal lobe could result in changes in socialization, attention, sexual habits and increased risk-taking.
The parietal lobe is found in the midbrain layer and controls people’s complex behaviors such as touch, vision, spatial orientation and body awareness. It plays crucial roles in the integration of sensory information from various body parts and in manipulating objects. The somatosensory cortex is found in this lobe and plays an important role in processing of senses of the body (Hicock, 2013). Overall, the parietal lobe is instrumental for managing the body position, sensation falls and handwriting. On the other hand, the temporal lobe is found on the bottom part of the brain and hosts the primary auditory complex that is critical for the interpretation of sounds and language that people hear. The temporal lobe also hosts the hippocampus, which is the reason this part of the brain helps in the formation of memories (Hicock, 2013). Damaging the temporal lobe could result in issues with speech perception, language skills and memory (Hicock, 2009: Hicock, 2013). The occipital lobe, fourth lobe, is found at the back part or hindbrain layer of the brain and is linked to the interpretation of visual information and stimuli. It hosts the primary visual cortex that plays the role of receiving and interpreting information emanating from the retinas. The visual processing or cognition functions it plays are visual attention, visual recognition, spatial analysis, body language perception including gestures, expressions and postures. Damage to it could result in problems such as difficulty in recognition of objects, the inability to identify colors as well as difficulty in recognizing words.
Brain Stem
The brain stem is found below the limbic system, and is responsible for important life functions including blood pressure, heartbeat and breathing. Scientists argue that the brain stem as the simplest part of the brain because it resembles the entire brain of animals like reptiles. It is made up of the medulla, pons and midbrain (Grossberg, 2012). The midbrain is usually the smallest part of the brain that is a kind of relay station for visual and auditory information (Grossberg, 2012). It controls numerous significant functions including eye movement, auditory and visual systems. Parts of the midbrain called substantia nigra and red nucleus play a role in controlling body movement. The substantia nigra is darkly pigmented and hosts many neurons that produce dopamine. Degeneration of neurons in this part causes the Parkinson’s disease. The medulla is found above the spinal cord within the lower brain stem part and is instrumental for controlling numerous important autonomic functions including blood pressure, breathing and heart rate. Pons connect the cerebellum to the medulla and serves various crucial functions, including autonomic functions like controlling the cycles of sleep and breathing (Gaddes, 2013). Regarding cognition and learning, the brain stem controls the flow of information between the brain and other parts of the body by facilitating and controlling basic body functions.
Cerebellum
Occasionally called the “Little Brain,” it lies on the upper section of pons and behind the brain stem. The cerebellum makes up about 10% of the total size of the brain, but has more than 50% of the neurons in the whole brain (Timmann et al., 2010). It plays a role in motor learning and coordination of movements, but not because motor commands emanate from here. Rather, the cerebellum modifies these signals and improves the accuracy and usefulness of motor movements (Stoodley, 2012). For instance, it helps in controlling balance, posture as well as the coordination of voluntary movements, thus allowing various muscle groups within the body to function together and lead to coordinated, fluid movement. Apart from motor control, it is also crucial in various cognitive functions such as speech.
Thalamus and Hypothalamus
Found in the core section of the brain, immediately above the brainstem, the thalamus plays a role in relaying pain sensations, temperature and pressure. It is core part of the limbic system consisting of two lobes of grey matter. Thalamus stimulation is linked to alterations in emotional reactivity (Price & Drevets, 2012). However, its significance in regulating emotional behavior is not because its activity but because of connections between the thalamus as well as other limbic-system structures. Despite the small size of the hypothalamus, it plays various functions including the stimulation of smooth muscles and receiving sensory impulses. Consequently, it controls the heart rate, movement of food through the alimentary canal and bladder contraction. The hypothalamus acts as the major interaction point for the two physical systems of the body: nervous and endocrine system (Price & Drevets, 2012). The nervous system usually transmits information through electrical impulses while the endocrine system releases chemical factors to stimulate glands. The hypothalamus is usually the first part of the brain that detects various changes in the body and responds through stimulation of various organs and glands to release hormones. In addition, the hypothalamus often acts as the intermediary of the brain for translation of emotion into physical response. When the mind has strong feelings of fear, pleasure, excitement and rage, the hypothalamus receives impulses from the cerebral cortex and can send signals by releasing hormones. It produces all the physical signs of excitement or fear, including shallow breathing and racing heartbeat (Price & Drevets, 2012). The hypothalamus also has neurons for monitoring body temperature and blood flow. Furthermore, the hypothalamus acts as the control center for stimuli underlying drinking and eating. Apart from these functions, the hypothalamus also induces sleep. Overall, the hypothalamus connects with numerous brain regions and plays a role in controlling thirst, emotions, hunger, circadian rhythms as well as the regulation of body temperature and other important functions.
Limbic System and Basal Ganglia
The major regions found in the limbic system are the amygdala, septal area, limbic cortex regions and hippocampus. These structures are crucial for the development of connections between the cerebral cortex, thalamus and hypothalamus (Bostan et al., 2013). For example, the hippocampus plays a critical role in learning and cognition, especially memory, whereas the limbic cortex is crucial for controlling emotional responses (Ashby et al, 2010). On the other hand, the basal ganglia are nuclei that surround the thalamus and important for controlling movement. The main role of the amygdala is being an important processor for senses. Linked to the hippocampus, the amygdala, it is critical in emotionally laden memories and has various opiate receptor sites implicated in fear, sexual feelings and anger.
Conclusion
The hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain are the major layers of the brain whereas the basal ganglia, limbic system, cerebral cortex, four lobes, brain stem, cerebellum, thalamus and hypothalamus are the major structures of the brain. The cerebral cortex enhances the processing of information and enables people to develop meaningful learning or experiences of their environments while the four lobes use information relayed to it to control body movements. The parietal lobe collates sensory information and makes sense of language and sound while the temporal lobe is critical for the formation of memories. The occipital lobe interprets stimuli and visual information. Regarding the brain stem, it is pertinent for controlling body movements through the control of flow of information between the brain and other parts of the body. The cerebellum is critical for motor control and cognitive functions while the basal ganglia also controls movement. Additionally, the thalamus relays pain sensations and alters emotional reactivity or regulates emotional behavior, whereas the hypothalamus detects body changes and stimulates organs to release hormones that respond to these changes. The limbic system is critical for the learning and cognition functions, particularly memory and controlling emotional responses. Generally, the brain plays indispensable functions that cannot be disregarded.
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