How the disorder can affect a child’s social and academic language development
Speech impairment varies in severity, frequency, and nature. Some preschool and elementary children have difficulty in speech production. The challenge is not about what to say; but how to say what they know, in a recognizable and acceptable language sound. The learning environment is critical in the psychosocial and educational development of each child. Stuttering is one of the speech impairment that is common among growing children who are exposed to new languages. Learning a new language comes with particular difficulties. Weis (2013) defines stuttering as "a marked impairment in speech fluency" (p.150). The American Psychiatric Association (2013), DSM-V calls it “Childhood Onset Fluency Disorder.” The usual onset is early childhood, before the age of five. The diagnostic criteria encompass situations where the condition will "cause anxiety about speaking, or limitations in effective communication, social participation, and academic performance" (APA, 2013, p. 45). This paper looks at stuttering in schoolchildren, and how teachers can assist, learners overcome the condition in a classroom setting. Teachers attitude towards children with speech impairment such as stuttering have a significant effect on affected children's psychosocial and educational development. Each child is unique, and educators need to customize measures to meet each child's speech need.
Early detection and intervention by teachers are some of the essential steps in assisting children who stutter. Reasonable fluency of speech may be affected by difficulties that demonstrate sound and syllable repetition, physical exertion in pronouncing words, and sound prolongations. Children may also exhibit broken words, monosyllabic whole word repetition, and circumlocutions (Weis, 2013). These signs and others may help teachers in identifying disfluencies such as stuttering in young school-going children. The age of onset of the signs is 3-6 years.
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The most relevant for classroom teachers to know about this disability
Teachers should be aware that the etiology of the condition is unknown, to help remove biases and social impediments to learning. Research on the subject has not shown any specific causal element of stuttering. Although, genetic predisposition is taken into consideration in making any risk assessment. Nye, et. al., (2013), notes that behavioral interventions are best before age eight. When stuttering does not cause any significant psychosocial issues to a child or parent, the teacher should simply show a positive attitude towards the child. Consultation between the child's parents is necessary to understand the extent of concern for the child's condition. Children who stutter are not different from those who are not regarding intellect and emotional behavior, but negative stereotype exists in most human populations (Flynn, & Louis, 2011). The ability to communicate or its inability does not determine intelligence. Negative attitudes towards people who stutter, cut across social and professional groups. Teachers who have sufficient information on these sensitive areas are more prepared in handling negative perception and behavior toward children who stutter. The teacher can control the classroom environment by controlling themselves and the classmates of a child who is stuttering.
A teacher’s knowledge of a family history can contribute towards helping a child with speech impairment or stuttering. The family history will provide the teacher with knowledge on risk assessment for the child and the intervention measures that can be applied to the given circumstance. Also, because the child lives within a social system, environmental factors that may reinforce the risk can be mitigated accordingly. For example, listeners to people who stutter react unpleasantly and emotionally. A sensitive teacher can detect this reaction by cushioning the stuttering child from the classmates or other teachers in the school.
How teachers can best support students in their classrooms who may have this disorder
The manner in which a teacher responds to a child who stutters goes a long way in affecting the confidence of the child. Impatience while listening and teasing may influence the child. A stutterer who encounters teasing, bullying and impatience have a greater possibility of developing nervousness and fear in speech. The teacher should be trained to allow stutterers complete their sentences or statements. It is degrading and annoying for people to complete statements that are being made by stutterers. Also, children who stutter should be allowed to read, sing, along with other students or pupils. The vocalization in unison has shown a reduction in stuttering among children with speech impairment. An atmosphere of learning that is not averse to a child can be created by a teacher, who understands the social and educational needs of a child.
Teachers can support the child with different speech therapy opportunities and environments available in and out of the classroom that enhance communication. The opportunity exists under the federal legislation (Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004), which the teacher can explore. Support groups are available options that teachers can utilize by encouraging parents to include their children in forums where similar emotional experiences are shared. These groups strengthen their members and offer sound counsel. The teacher should model slow speech, shorter sentences, silences, and demonstrate acceptance to the class of the child’s condition. Disfluency should be seen as common aspects of some children's lives. The acceptance by the teacher dispels negative responses from classmates creating a friendly learning environment. Also, collaboration with the child speech therapist is essential for the teacher to manage the support that the child requires. According to Langevin and Prasad (2012); an enabling environment "may reduce their anxiety and, consequently, frequency or severity of stuttering episodes” (p.70). When the children understand the teacher is interested in what is being communicated rather than how it boosts the child's confidence.
Another area that teachers can use to enlighten children in their classrooms is the use of literature materials on stuttering. Many fictional texts have been written with depictions on stuttering. Fiction has the potential of affecting learners’ cognitive and behavioral dispositions or perspective. Bushey and Martin (1988) assert that fiction has the capability of modifying the attitudes and behaviors of children. Such book can be effectively utilized as educational tools in a classroom setting and curriculum. Children through discussions and reading of these texts are facilitated to understand diversity, empathy, acceptance, and effect of bullying. The teacher can act as a facilitator who engages the children in a manner that will eliminate and manage bias and misunderstanding about stuttering.
Teachers can play a significant part in helping the child develop social skills and overcome speech anxiety. Stuttering may associate with some form of anxiety disorders. It also may lead to social anxiety. Thus, timely intervention by the teacher may likely prevent anxiety disorders. Also, it can prevention negative behaviors as a result of neglect. The early intervention will keep the child from growing with underlying social anxiety issues because of stuttering. Social skills development will likely reduce interpersonal fears. Learners who stutter sometimes demonstrate insecurity in and lack of participation in social environments. The teacher, who is trained can detect social skill deficiencies in a child, and help develop social skill training framework that is specific to a child. An understanding of the individual needs help "to recognize the different subtypes of individuals who stutter and deal with them in a differential way” (Nye, et. al., 2013, p. 923). Teachers recognize this gap and intervene in learning institutions that are inclusive of children with different speech impairments.
Teachers need to pay particular attention to bilingual children to identify the challenges they face as special education pupils or students. Howell, Davis, and Williams (2008) found that bilingual students stutter in both languages. They found that children who spoke their native languages at home have better recovery rate than those who learned a second language such as English exclusively. All measures being equal, academic performance remains unaffected by stuttering (Howell et. al., 2008). Sufficient research demonstrates that the cognitive and educational development of a child is not affected by the condition of stuttering. These findings are important for the teachers to use in their emphasis on equal learning opportunities for everyone in the class. Teachers can encourage parents to read books with their children in their native languages until they overcome stuttering. Some children only stutter when the second language is English. Thus, teachers can evaluate if the disfluency is in both languages or one.
The formative years of children are within the school environment. Teachers are crucial in the development of a child's overall wellbeing. Many children with speech impairment attest that teachers do not have enough training in the area of stuttering, are frequently teased by classmates, their social skills and academic performance is affected by the negative perception of stuttering (Klompas & Ross, 2004). Therefore, teachers’ education and provision of teaching aids can improve teacher’s attitudes towards learners with speech impairment. Low self-confidence and self-esteem are the general reports of most children with speech challenges such as stuttering. The teacher is central to the deconstruction of these elements that impact negatively on the children social and educational developmental outcomes. Teachers can use reinforcement techniques to engage the stutterer in social skills and confidence building.
Stuttering has an emotional impact on both the stutterer and the listener. However, the one who is stuttering feels more emotionally disturbed. Educators need to demonstrate empathy to a level that will cause teachers to improve their professional relationship with the child with speech impairment. The inability to control speech production increases their self-doubt, which also damages their self-esteem. Thus, as these kids grow, their self-worth dwindles among their social circles. The confidence needed to initiate relationships with their peers is not adequate thereby causing them to shy away from making friends.
Thus, teachers can evaluate their interactions with children with a stuttering condition. Training and empathy are critical steps that teachers can apply to help children with speech impairment develop socially, academically, and psychologically. Among the ways that teachers can impact their children who stutter includes the following: avoid completing words for them, always expecting the same academic workload from the stutterers and non-stutterers. Teachers should understand that each child is unique. Teachers should model slow speech, short sentences, pausing intermittently. Teachers should convey to the child that they are listening to what the child is saying rather that how it is being said. Teachers should also create a non-discriminatory and inclusive learning environment for the child who is stuttering. The class should not be seen to isolate the one who is stuttering, and the needs of the child should be respected accordingly. The teachers should create collaboration with a child's speech therapist or pathologist to manage the child effectively.
Speech impairment varies in its severity, frequency, and character. School-age children are part of the group of individuals with speech difficulties. One of these speech impairments is stuttering characterized by an inability to produce language sounds in an accepted manner. Early detection and intervention are essential in the recovery of normal speech. Each child is different and needs specific measures. There is no common etiology of the disorder. Teachers have a unique role in helping kids with this impairment develop psychosocially and academically.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. Fifth Edition (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
Bushey, T., & Martin, R. (1988). Stuttering in children's literature. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 19 (3), 235250.
Flynn, T. W., & Louis, K. O. S. (2011). Changing adolescent attitudes toward stuttering. Journal of fluency disorders, 36 (2), 110121.
Howell, P., Davis, S., & Williams, R. (2008). Late childhood stuttering. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51 (3), 669687.
Klompas, M., & Ross, E. (2004). Life Experiences of People Who Stutter, and the Perceived Impact of Stuttering on Quality of Life: Personal Accounts of South African Individuals. Journal Of Fluency Disorders, 29 (4), 275-305.
Langevin, M., & Prasad, N. N. (2012). A stuttering education and bullying awareness and prevention resource: A feasibility study. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services In Schools, 43 (3), 344358.
Nye, C., Vanryckeghem, M., Schwartz, J. B., Herder, C., Turner, H. M., & Howard, C. (2013). Behavioral stuttering interventions for children and adolescents: A systematic review and metaanalysis. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 56 (3), 921932.
Weis, R. (2013). Introduction to abnormal child and adolescent psychology . Sage Publications.
