Substance use and crime are two closely related issues that continue to attract significant attention from different disciplines like criminal justice, psychology, sociology, and public health. It cuts across the board, and various scholars have examined the relationship between the use of substance and increased crime rate. Hakansson and Jesionowska (2018) examined such relationships in a prison setting, while Chandler et al. (2009) investigated whether drug use contributes to increased criminal behavior. Similarly, Birkenshaw (2018) conducted a study to establish if addiction leads to increased criminal activities. Such studies have one thing in common; substance abuse leads to increased crime. The question then should be, how can an understanding of the mental effects of drug use help in solving a crime? The current study examines the relationship between substance use and crime by identifying the different types of drugs/substances and the crimes perpetrated.
Background of the Study
Substance abuse and the development of criminal behaviors are some of the primary issues experienced in society. Substance abuse refers to the excessive use of different psychoactive substances such as alcohol, illegal and hard drugs, opioids, or pain-relieving medications. The excessive use of such substances results in a wide range of physical, social, and mental issues in an individual. The main effect associated with substance abuse is addiction, which is a brain disorder that is characterized by compulsive engagement or use of the given substances. Additionally, substance abuse has a significant role in developing criminal behaviors, which is an aspect that relates to various physical, social, and emotional factors. The forensic psychology concentration has an integral role in defining how individuals develop criminal behaviors following exposure to substance abuse. The most significant aspect of consideration is to examine substance abuse disorder, which is a condition that results from the impact of substance abuse in the human body.
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The second key element that helps to understand factors relating to substance abuse and criminal behavior is the examination of the biological, social, as well as psychological factors that contribute to substance abuse, as well as criminal activities. The Bureau of Justice Statistics (2020) indicated that drug-related crimes are increasing significantly across the United States, with "17% of state prisoners and 18% of federal inmates said they committed their current offense to obtain money for drugs.” The key issue of concern when dealing with such offenders is that many of them often engage in violent crimes that tend to have fatal outcomes without due knowledge or control of their behaviors. The analysis of addiction and the physical and mental effects of addiction helps to demonstrate the relationship between the development of criminal behavior among people engaging in substance abuse. Some of the key factors that may be considered when evaluating criminality include demographics and the nature of drugs that an individual consumes. In the aspect of demographics, age and gender have a vital role in examining the rates of substance abuse and the development of criminal behavior. Thus, it is important to note that some people within different age groups may present varying results of substance abuse and the development of criminal behaviors.
Literature Review
The issue of substance abuse has a significant impact on various aspects of life, such as health, social interaction, economic well-being, and emotional problems. Criminal Justice (2015) maintains that forensic psychology concentration focuses on the examination of a substance use disorder, which is a condition that results in persistent and pervasive consequences in the life of an individual. Understanding the substance use disorder helps to examine various aspects related to biological, psychological, and social factors used to predict the development of criminal behavior in an individual. The impacts of substance use disorder has a major role in pushing an individual towards engaging in crime with the aim of overcoming different forms of psychological issues and meet the needs associated with the excessive use of substances. Criminal Justice (2015), mentions that substance abuse does not only impact the health of an individual but also economically considering the high costs of drugs.
The evaluation of a relationship that exists between substance abuse and criminal behavior is an essential aspect of forensic psychology concentration. Hakansson & Jesionowska (2020) argue that substance abuse is related to the development of criminal behaviors. The conclusions made by the author were based on research conducted among prisoners with substance use problems. Hakansson& Jesionowska (2020) noted that the crimes committed among the prisoners varied based on the level of addiction and the nature of substance abused. A majority of people with a high level of addiction tend to engage in drug crimes such as trafficking and drug production.
In contrast, individuals with a relatively low addiction on aspects such as alcohol and other drugs tend to engage in violent crimes such as robbery. The findings on the given study played an integral role in depicting how substance abuse relates to the development of criminal behaviors. The two studies clearly show that substance abuse contributes to increased crime. Demographics further explains drug use and crime rate. A study by Mannerfelt and Håkansson (2018), shows that there are differences in substance use and crime rate between men and women. For example, the authors pointed out that men are likely to abuse cocaine and cannabis while women use amphetamine, methadone and injection drugs. It is there possible to understand the differences in the crimes committed by the different gender groups. Similarly, the study showed that men have a higher chance of returning to the judicial system compared to their female counterparts during the follow up period.
In forensic psychology, the analysis of chronic drugs and the level of addiction in relation to criminal behavior is an important area of consideration. Chandler et al. (2009) argue that most people do not receive proper treatment to overcome addiction, thus resulting in repeated drug abuse as a way of trying to deal with the psychological effects of drugs in the life of an individual. Another critical aspect noted by the author is that drugs used in the treatment of chronic illnesses tend to cause addiction, considering that most people rely on such medications to survive and relieve pain. The addiction may result in the engagement of criminal activities such as drug trafficking and production to meet the demand. Additionally, the high costs of drugs may increase the need for an individual to engage in illegal behaviors such as stealing to get the drugs and fulfill their addiction.
In the study of substance abuse and crime, it is necessary to evaluate demographics to understand the impact of factors such as age and gender in the involvement of substance abuse. Bright et al. (2017) maintain that age and gender are primary factors that are crucial in determining the involvement of an individual in matters concerning substance abuse and crime. Kim, Gilman, Kosterman, and Hill (2019) noted that young people are prone to substance abuse compared to older people in society. Key aspects include peer pressure among young people and the development of a pop culture that glorifies substance abuse in the community. The adoption of the popular culture considers drug abuse and crime as an important aspect that helps to promote fame among the younger generations (Booth et al. 2011). Additionally, substance abuse and criminality are prevalent more in men compared to women. Some of the critical factors that help to indicate a difference in the level of addiction between men and women include susceptibility, recovery, and risk of relapse, which varies in each gender.
An important aspect of consideration relating to substance abuse and criminal behavior is that addiction fuels engagement in crime. The most important factor to note is that addiction is a mental disorder that impacts the physical, psychological, and social well-being of an individual. In that case, most people experiencing addiction tend to engage in criminal activities to sustain their lives and ensure that they overcome the adverse effects of the addition (Rafaiee et al., 2013). The costs of maintaining an addiction tend to be relatively high, thus resulting in a situation where individuals are likely to engage in criminal behaviors with the aim of affording the costs associated with the addiction. Likewise, the physical and mental effects of drug abuse can be linked to the development of criminal behaviors. Birkenshaw (2018) maintains that the effects of substance abuse may have a major impact on engagement in crime. Such likelihoods arise due to the relationship between cognitive and behavioral aspects in life since substance abuse results in a mental disorder that impacts on the behavior of an individual. Data from reputable sources also support such arguments.
The statistics on drug-related crimes present a significant correlation between substance abuse and an increase in the development of crime. Bureau of Justice Statistics (2020) indicates that 17% of state prisoners in the United States and 18% of federal inmates engaged in crime to sustain or maintain their addiction to different drugs. Some of the common offenses committed by the prisoners to obtain money for drugs included robbery with violence, property theft, drug trafficking, and other violent crimes. The Bureau further indicates that the majority of inmates have a history with different kinds of drugs, thus indicating the reason the majority engaged in various types of crime. The psychological impact of drugs tends to affect the ability of an individual to reason appropriately, thus resulting in the development of criminal behaviors. The statistics on drug-related crimes indicate that most people commit crimes to obtain money for purchasing drugs while others engage in criminal activities because of the psychological effects of the drugs.
Research Questions and Hypothesis
Engaging in the current study required focusing on evaluating research questions that guided the research. The first testable research questions with hypotheses involve whether substance abuse and criminal behavior are related. In this question, the main objective is to conduct an in-depth analysis of the factors determining the relationship between substance abuse and criminal behavior. The results to this question help to ensure that detailed information is obtained concerning the key areas of consideration when dealing with forensic psychology. Another research question is whether addiction fuels specific crime among individuals. The analysis of the question by testing hypothesis helps in providing relevant and reliable information relating to addiction and contribution to the development of specific crimes. The question assisted in evaluating a wide range of factors relating to addiction and the psychological attributes of criminal behaviors in individuals. Lastly, the study focused on whether physical and mental effects of substance abuse could contribute to the engagement of an individual in criminal activities.
Methods and Results
Sources of Data and Sample Analysis
The present study involved a cross-sectional analysis that would highlight the association between substance abuse and multiple types of crime among adults aged from 18 to 66 years, who suffer from substance abuse disorder as diagnosed by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-V). DSM-V is a tool developed by the American Psychology Association (APA) to establish criteria used when diagnosing mental disorders. Substance Abuse Disorder (SUD) is one of the notable mental disorders diagnosed using this tool; hence, its use as part of this study. The sample selected included offenders in the criminal justice system convicted of different types of crimes, which can be traced back to their substance use. The whole dataset included 285 offenders who engaged in an assessment of substance abuse problems within the different criminal justice environments.
The inclusion criteria focused on an offender's history with substance abuse and conviction for a crime within the last five (5) years. The offenders were interviewed with the aim of getting a clear understanding of how their substance abuse problems may have contributed to their engagement in criminal behaviors. Data from the criminal justice registry provided valid information on the offenders' criminal history, which determine whether they met this study's inclusion criteria. After evaluating the offenders to determine their viability, the final cohort consisted of 132 individuals who met the inclusion criteria. To guarantee reliability in the study findings, the present study included both male and female participants. The participants were predominantly male (n=98, 74.24%), and their mean age was 36.4 years, with the participant's age ranging from 18 to 66 years.
Variables of the Study
The present study focused on two main variables, which are crime and substance abuse. These variables are intended to achieve the study’s objective, which is to determine whether substance abuse is a key variable or determinant of crime and criminal behaviors among adults. The crime committed by offenders were retrieved from his/her file from the criminal justice registry. The study focused on four main types of crimes: violent, acquisitive, drug, and other crimes. Acquisitive crimes include cases of robberies or handling or selling stolen goods or items, which goes against the penal code. The other categories of crimes are mutually exclusive, considering that they define the nature of the crime that one is convicted. Violent crimes, on the other hand, include cases of murder and assault, among others, which often involve weapons.
When focusing on the second variable, which is substance abuse, an assessment was conducted to determine the primary drugs that the cohorts included in this study reported. From the assessment, 32% of the cohorts indicated amphetamine as their primary drug, while 17% indicated polydrug use, which involves the use of two or more types of drugs. A further 13% indicated alcohol, 13% marijuana, 9% heroin, 7% a combination of alcohol and other drugs, 3% sedatives, and 3% cocaine. The study included participants that have had a drug problem for at least six months prior to their conviction. The study focuses on ensuring that the cohorts involved in the study are well aware of their substance abuse problems and their contribution to their engagement in different types of crimes. No personal information was gathered from the participants. However, each participant signed an informed consent that meets the standards of the Institutional Review Board (IRB).
Statistical Analysis
The present study included a statistical analysis aimed at using different statistical tools to examine the variables thoroughly as they relate to the study outcomes. The key factor considered when determining the statistical analysis to use was the projected outcome of the analysis and its importance in the study in its entirety. A descriptive analysis was conducted on the gathered data involved as a way of determining the close connection between the key variables considered in the study. A comparison was undertaken to determine the existence of substance abuse and other underlying characteristics occurring within the different groups of crimes considered as part of the study. In other words, the study used descriptive analysis to determine whether substance abuse acts as a key determinant of the type of crime that one commits.
The study also conducted chi-square tests with the objective of differentiating between violent crimes and other types of crime categories. The tests also helped in undertaking a binary comparison to determine the number of fatal and non-fatal crimes undertaken by convicted violent offenders. Another statistical analysis conducted as part of this study was a correlational matrix, which focused on the evaluation of the different variables examined as part of this study. The correlation is important because it determines the extent to which the variables relate as a way of determining the negative implications associated with substance use on crime. Each of the statistical analyses conducted was essential to achieving the study's objective, considering that they determine the relationship between the variables.
Results
Primary crimes evaluated as part of this present study included violent crimes, which accounted for 17% of the total number of cases, drug crimes (32%), acquisitive crimes (29%), driving under the influence of alcohol or other substances (16%), financial crimes (4%), and traffic crimes (2%). In violent crimes, different types of illicit drugs were less common, which included (heroin, cocaine, and amphetamine). However, these offenders showed a higher prevalence leading them towards alcohol binge drinking and sedatives, which can be considered as key factors that may have led to their violent or aggressive behaviors. In the latter crime groups considered, the use of illicit drugs was more likely when compared to the use of alcohol and other related drugs. In the category of those convicted of driving under the influence of alcohol or other substances, the most common type of drug was alcohol, followed by sedatives. A significantly low number of these offenders indicated that their convictions can be related to their use of heroin, amphetamine, and injecting the drug.
When considering age and gender, those convicted of violent crimes were predominantly male, mainly young, while a small number of the convictions being young females. In cases where young females are convicted of fatal or non-fatal violent crimes, illicit drugs were the primary contributor to their behaviors. A history of illicit drug use was positively associated with violence among young female offenders compared to their engagement in all other types of crimes. For young males, the key type of drug contributing to their violent behavior was alcohol, especially when they engage in binge drinking. Comparing drug use among fatal and non-fatal violence offenders indicates that illicit drug use is much more prevalent in cases resulting in lethal violence; thus, showing the negative implications of using such drugs.
The study identified gender as a key determinant of the type of drugs that people consume, which serves as a determinant of whether one faces the risk of engaging in criminal behaviors. Women are much more likely to engage in the consumption of illicit drugs, such as cocaine and heroin. The interview noted that a significant number of women convicted of drug-related crimes were arrested based on their use of illicit drugs. Men are more likely to consume a combination of alcohol and other illicit drugs, such as marijuana. From this perspective, it can be argued that the type of drug consumed determines the nature of crimes that one is likely to commit. Women using illicit drugs are more likely to be arrested for engagement into acquisitive crimes, which include robberies. The key motivator for many of these women is the desire to get the money that would ensure they purchase more drugs. In cases involving men, their consumption of alcohol is likely to push them towards aggressive and violent behaviors.
Discussion
Interpretation of Results
The present study evaluated substance abuse patterns and their association to the different types of crimes among convicted offenders who have a history of substance abuse problems. The study also demonstrates how substance abuse is distributed in violent crime, both fatal and non-fatal, which differs significantly when compared to the other crime categories evaluated. The results show that illicit drug use is less common among violent offenders, whereas alcohol use is higher compared to the different types of crime. Violent offenders are more likely to engage in binge drinking or the use of sedatives, which tend to affect their behaviors; thus, pushing them towards engaging in such types of criminal behaviors. A comparison of fatal and non-fatal violent crimes shows that illicit drug use is more prevalent in violent crimes with disastrous outcomes.
While the cohorts involved in this study reported a primary substance of abuse, which defined their substance use problem, it was not surprising that the most significant number of those using illicit drugs, such as heroin, cocaine, and amphetamine, accounted for the highest number of those convicted with drug crimes. Thus, it can be argued that the most significant percentage of those sentenced for drug crimes were arrested for their use of illicit substances under the penal code. Sedatives were considered as a primary drug used concomitantly illicit drugs, which creates a higher likelihood of an offender engaging in fatal violent crime. Some of those convicted with lethal violent crimes indicated that they have a substance abuse problem due to their use of sedatives and other illicit drugs, which hamper their abilities to make effective decisions.
Although the results from this study provide a positive connection between substance abuse problems and crime, they cannot be generalized to the entire population and cannot help in addressing the issues of substance use and crime engagement among female offenders. From a forensic perspective, patterns of criminal behaviors are notably different among female offenders when compared to their male counterparts. Among these offers, those convicted of violent crimes account for the highest number of the ones using illicit drugs. In other words, illicit drug use among females is more likely to push them towards engaging in violent crimes, most of which are likely to have fatal outcomes. However, the results from the interview of female offenders show that their perception of crime is highly individualized, whereby it becomes much harder to determine whether indeed illicit drugs are key contributors to violent crimes.
Having individualized views regarding substance abuse and crime means that there exist notable variations in the data for determining the link or connection between the use of drugs and engagement in crime. Data from the female cohorts show a significant disparity in the likelihood of a woman engaging in crime due to her use of drugs. The most significant number of female offenders was those convicted of drug-related crimes, with many of those being convicted of using illicit drugs. Approximately 43.2% indicated that they had been convicted of using cocaine, while 31.6% were convicted of using heroin. On the other hand, a significant number of female cohorts were convicted of driving under the influence of alcohol or other substances. Many of the offenders in this crime category were convicted for driving under the influence of alcohol, with a limited number using other illicit drugs.
Some literature sources support the connection identified between substance abuse and crime from multiple geographical settings. Hakansson& Jesionowska (2020) support the position that alcohol consumption serves as a proximal risk factor defining one's engagement in violent crime, with the risk increasing in cases where the offenders take sedatives. The study shows that continued use of alcohol and sedatives may push individuals to engage in violent behaviors that would most likely lead to their conviction. In the present study, the cohorts interviewed indicated that alcohol and sedatives tend to have violent-promoting effects where individuals are more likely to experience agitation or aggressiveness, which would lead to their violent behaviors. Rafaiee et al. (2013) note that uncontrolled use of illicit drugs often creates a situation where individuals are far less likely to control their decisions; thus, creating a high possibility of engagement in crime.
The present study appreciates the fact that although there exists evidence to support the view that substance abuse is a risk factor for crime, the relationship is complicated considering the responses that one is likely to have towards a specific type of drug. Results from the interviews highlight that the offenders’ responses to different types of drugs may have been negative; thus, resulting in a situation where it becomes much harder for them to control their behaviors. For example, an individual engaging in binge drinking is far less likely to have control over his/her behaviors, which creates a high possibility that he/she would end up engaging in violent crime. This is a conclusion that can be generalized in the general population, considering that the neurological effects of alcohol are similar regardless of the individuals involved.
Illicit drug use poses the most significant risk regarding the possibility of individuals engaging in crime, considering that most of these drugs are often unregulated, which means that their effects can be far-reaching. Violent behaviors are common in areas where access to illicit drugs is higher, which suggests that the data gathered in this present study does not consider geographical location in determining whether one is likely to engage in such behaviors. Marijuana, cocaine, amphetamine, and hallucinogenic drugs often create situations where users often experience hallucinations that separate them from their realities (Booth et al., 2011). Therefore, these individuals are likely to engage in criminal behaviors without their knowledge, understanding, or control because the drugs used often limit their temporal capacity to make viable decisions.
Limitations and Ethical Issues
The first fundamental limitation of this study is that it only observes crime and criminal behavior from a single perspective, which is that of substance abuse. The research focuses on a set of self-reported factors reflecting on the offenders' decision to engage in criminal behaviors without due consideration of the negative implications. It is important to note that multiple psychiatric conditions are likely to act as key risk factors pushing individuals towards engaging in criminal behaviors. Therefore, this study is limited in its findings because it cannot provide data on the other psychiatric conditions causing crime, especially when dealing with cases of violent crime. The study’s perspective is limited because it cannot be used as a valid explanation to determine why people engage in criminal behaviors. Instead, it only evaluates a single risk factor, which is substance abuse, to explain crime and criminal behaviors.
Another limitation of this study is that data on substance abuse are self-reported, which makes it hard to determine the validity and reliability of such data. Although this present study uses a well-established interview instrument as part of its data collection process, the data cannot be authenticated and validated. The key issue of concern is that the individuals providing such data are likely to lie or provide inaccurate data, impacting the study’s reliability. Data gathered from external sources cannot be used to support the generalized notions established through self-reported reports. The last limitation of this study is that the data from the criminal justice registry only focuses on a single crime rather than evaluating all criminal behaviors that one may portray. Therefore, it is much harder to determine whether the criminal tendencies portrayed are reflective of the information used as part of the conviction.
Conclusion
Substance abuse refers to excessive use of different psychoactive substances such as alcohol, illegal drugs, or pain-relieving medications. Understanding the substance use disorder helps to examine various aspects that relate to biological, psychological, and social factors that could be used to predict the development of criminal behavior in an individual. Data collection in this study is vital, considering the need to capitalize on the reliability and validity of the information collected. Engaging in the study required focusing on evaluating research questions that guided the research. The study also demonstrates how substance abuse is distributed in violent crime, both fatal and non-fatal, which differs significantly when compared to the other crime categories evaluated. Although the results from this study provide a positive connection between substance abuse problems and crime, they cannot be generalized to the entire population and cannot help in addressing the issues of substance use and crime engagement among female offenders.
References
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