Bones are regarded as rigid organs constituting part of vertebrates’ endoskeleton. They help in protecting and supporting various body organs, storing minerals, as well as producing both red and white blood cells. The tissue of the bone is a kind of dense connective tissue appearing to be static besides being regularly remodeled throughout a vertebrate's organism lifetime. However, this is supported by the osteoblast and osteoclasts synchronization since they are the cells that help in depositing and reabsorption respectively (Patoine, Husseini, Kasaai, Gaumond & Moffatt, 2017). It is also imperative in understanding that bone remodeling occurs as a result of responding to trauma, for example, after dental implants placement and accidental fracture. Therefore, this paper discusses the various stages of bone development.
Initial bone formation stage
This is also regarded as the fetal development stage that occurs through two processes including intramembranous ossification as well as endochondral ossification.
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Intramembranous Ossification Stage
This process primarily transpires when the skull’s flat bones are being formed, in addition to the formation of maxilla, clavicles, and mandible. During this process, the formation of bone comes from the connective tissue including the mesenchyme tissue instead of being formed from the cartilage (Zhang, Lan, Nie, Guan & Gao, 2018). There are various steps of intramembranous ossification as stated below:
Ossification center development
Calcification
Trabecular formation
Periosteum formation
Endochondral Ossification
This process is involved with the hyaline cartilage replacement with the bony tissue, and it starts with the primary ossification centers of the cartilage. Besides, most of the skeleton bones are formed in this way and are regarded as endochondral bones. During this process, the formation of future bones happens as the models of hyaline cartilage (Ludwa, Falk, Ward, Gammage & Klentrou, 2017). During the third month following conception, the perichondrium surrounding the “models” of hyaline cartilage changes to periosteum as a result of being infiltrated with the osteoblasts and blood vessels.
Additionally, secondary ossification happens after birth, and the process occurs by forming the extremities of flat and irregular bones in addition to forming the epiphyses of long bones. The epiphyseal plate (cartilage’s growing zone) separates both the epiphyses of a long bone and the diaphysis (Budna, Bryja, Celichowski, Kranc, Ciesiółka, Borys, Kempisty, 2017). After reaching the skeletal maturity which is the age between 19 to 25 years, the bone replaces all the cartilage, thus fusing together both epiphyses as well as the diaphysis.
Remodeling Bone Development Stage
This stage is also known as bone turnover and is the resorption process that is followed by bone replacement without or little change in the bone’s shape. It usually happens all through an individual’s life. During this stage, the paracrine cell signaling helps in coupling together the osteoclasts and osteoblasts through a remodeling unit process of the bone development. Besides, Ludwa, Falk, Ward, Gammage, and Klentrou (2017) posit that about 10% of an adult’s skeletal mass is always remodeled every year. Importantly, remodeling stage plays a significant role in bone development as it assists in regulating calcium homeostasis as well as repairing of micro-damage from an individual’s daily stress, in addition to shaping the skeleton during growth (Patoine, Husseini, Kasaai, Gaumond & Moffatt, 2017). Finally, this stage is comprised of the resorption period, reversal of osteoplastic, as well as the bone development and growth of formation periods.
References
Budna, J., Bryja, A., Celichowski, P., Kranc, W., Ciesiółka, S., Borys, S., … Kempisty, B. (2017). “Bone Development” Is an Ontology Group Upregulated in Porcine Oocytes Before In Vitro Maturation: A Microarray Approach. DNA & Cell Biology, 36(8), 638– 646. https://doi.org/10.1089/dna.2017.3677
Ludwa, I. A., Falk, B., Ward, W. E., Gammage, K. L., & Klentrou, P. (2017). Mechanical, biochemical, and dietary determinants of the functional model of bone development of the radius in children and adolescents. Applied Physiology, Nutrition & Metabolism, 42(7), 780–787. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2016-0666
Patoine, A., Husseini, A., Kasaai, B., Gaumond, M.-H., & Moffatt, P. (2017). The osteogenic cell surface marker BRIL/IFITM5 is dispensable for bone development and homeostasis in mice.PLoS ONE, 12(9), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184568
Zhang, W.-Z., Lan, T., Nie, C.-H., Guan, N.-N., & Gao, Z.-X. (2018). Characterization and spatiotemporal expression analysis of nine bone morphogenetic protein family genes during intermuscular bone development in blunt snout bream. Gene,642, 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2017.11.027
