The Development of Pre-School Children's Critical Thinking

Conceptual Framework

This current study seeks to establish the improvement in pre-school children's critical thinking skills due to drama education. To conduct an effective analysis, the abilities of pre-school children will be compared before and after receiving drama education. According to Soydan (2015), critical thinking stems from enhanced creative capabilities, and a drama-based curriculum can be an effective strategy in promoting such skills. Although creativity is a complex process, it can be observed in all intelligent beings. Based on Soydan's study (2015), children aged six years who have had a drama-based education seemed to be able to make better and more conscious decisions. Another study conducted by Senol (2019), drama education refined critical thinking capabilities in pre-school children because it allowed them to apply problem-solving tactics. The possible explanation for this is that drama can stimulate imagination and creativity in children, leading to problem-solving and critical thinking. In addition, it can enhance a child's potential for negotiation and dialogue, which leads to an improvement in the overall socialization process. Drama activities can also enable children to learn to use their bodies to express themselves. The improvement noticed in terms of speech and body language is nothing short of extraordinary (Tam, 2016). Thus, a strong case can be made to include drama in the pre-school education curriculum.

Since cognitive development in pre-school children is a combination of multiple environmental, cultural, and genetic factors, it may be difficult to delineate exact processes that constitute the best fit for enhancing critical thinking skills. However, widely accepted theories, which have been corroborated through empirical as well as anecdotal evidence, can provide a useful commencement point (Pekdemir & Akyol, 2015). Hence, this study will utilize a conceptual framework built upon theoretical underpinnings identified by three leading researchers. The three concepts are: 

Vygotsky's social learning theory 

Bruner's theory of scaffolding 

Dewey's theory of reflection

First, Vygotsky's social learning theory () describes three domains: (1) What one can learn on their own, (2) what one can learn with help, and (3) what is beyond one's reach of learning ( Topçiu et al., 2015 ). The social development theory, as presented by Vygotsky, argues that social interaction precedes development. Vygotsky's theory of cognition development argues that the sociocultural environment confronts children with various tasks and questions, which contributes to the development of consciousness and cognition (Topciu et al., 2015; Yardley et al., 2012 ). In the early stages, children are completely dependent on other persons, particularly their parents, who instruct them on what to do and how to do it. The socialization and the social behavior of parents and the community play a significant role in the manner in which a child adapts to the social conditions. According to Vygotsky, a child initially receives knowledge through contact and interaction with people before they assimilate this knowledge by incorporating their personal values. In analyzing the social learning theory, Vygotsky discusses three primary themes, including social interaction, the more knowledgeable other (MKO), and the zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Topciu et al., 2015). Social interaction plays a significant role in cognitive development. Based on the theory, social interaction precedes development, with these developments first occurring on the social level (interpsychological) before they occur on the individual level (intrapsychological). The more knowledgeable other (MKO) plays a significant role in a child's development on the social level. Any person with a better understanding or a higher ability, such as a teacher, a coach, an older adult, or a peer, is considered to be an MKO (Shaikh, 2019). According to Vygotsky, ZPD is the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by an independent problem solving and the level of potential development as per the problem solving with the guidance of an adult or capable peer (Johnson et al., 2017). According to the social development theory, children and teachers are considered to be active agents in the teaching process. Although the intervention of teachers is vital in children's learning, the quality of interaction between teachers and students also plays a significant role. Dramatic games, which are common in the pre-school age, play a significant role in the learning and development of children as per the theory, as it facilitates increased quality social interaction among children and between children and their instructors. This concept is adopted within this conceptual framework. 

Second, Bruner's Theory of Scaffolding (1976) is concerned with the intellectual and social development of children, describing the providing of support for learners at each step of the learning process (Malik, 2017). Scaffolding provides opportunities for children to have imaginative experiences where they can apply existing knowledge to a new situation (Malik, 2017). Bruner's theory of scaffolding is mainly built on Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, where children tend to learn more in the presence of knowledgeable others. In the literal sense, scaffolding is usually put around the outside of a new building to facilitate access to an emerging structure during construction (Malik, 2017). Once the construction is complete, and the building is able to support itself, the scaffoldings are removed. Just as scaffolding provides essential but temporary support to the building, teachers and more knowledgeable others provide temporary assistance to learners to develop a new understanding (Burns et al., 2005). drama helps to focus children's attention on the essential and relevant aspects while ensuring that they remain motivated. Bruner's discussed three modes of representation, which describes how information or knowledge is stored and encoded in memory. The three representation includes the enactive, iconic, and symbolic representation. Enacting involves encoding action-based information and storing it in memory (McLeod, 2008). At this stage, past events are represented through motor tasks. The iconic representation involves the storage of information visually in the form of images, either consciously or unknowingly. The combination of diagrams and illustrations with verbal information makes the process more effective (McLeod, 2008). The symbolic mode of representation happens for persons aged seven years or older. Therefore, in pre-school, where the iconic mode of representation is the most dominant, the incorporation of drama in the curriculum helps do provide images and illustrations, which are easy to store, and thus facilitating cognitive development (McLeod, 2008). The incorporation of drama in pre-school can be explained using the concept of scaffolding, as it helps to keep the task at an appropriate level of difficulty and improves children's cognitive abilities. The incorporation of drama to promote cognitive development is also temporary support for children's development. This concept of scaffolding is also adopted within the conceptual framework of this study.

Third, Dewey's theory of reflection (1910) provides details about thinking and reflection. According to the theory, reflection studies the essence of a problem before resolving it; reflection converts sampling inference into a proven conclusion (Rodgers, 2002). Reflection implies that a decision is not just believed in because of its own direct account, but though other elements such as a witness, evidence, and other factors that represent a ground of belief. Dewey's concept of reflection can be divided into two types, including intellectual and praxiological reflection (Dimova et al., 2015; Frödén et al., 2020 ). Intellectual reflection involves the process of gaining awareness about knowledge, along with the methods pertaining to acquiring knowledge. On the other hand, praxiological reflection is the process of preparation for the application of knowledge; it is the process of transforming knowledge into instruments of activities. Ideally, reflective thinking is realized either during or after the activity. The theory of reflection argues that a person thinks over his or her actions, the reason for its completion, and the potential consequences of such actions. The purpose of reflection is to be conscious of the layers of culture weaved in the observation, whether if it is prejudices and carriers of past occurrences, and thus impacting on the current sensible actions (Miettinen, 2017). The impact of drama on the development of critical thinking skills among pre-school children can be explained using this concept. Once exposed to the culture and knowledge presented in drama, children tend to reflect on the new information, which then influences their decision-making processes in the future. The exposure to drama makes these children to critically analyze the situation based on the drama knowledge that is already reflected upon. This concept is also adopted within this conceptual framework.

The researcher will track children's' learning through the above conceptual lenses for the purpose of understanding the development of their critical thinking skills while they are performing drama. 

Role of Drama in Early Childhood Development

Theatre arts, particularly drama, has gained significant pedagogical application aside from theatre as performance. The application of drama as a learning medium, mainly referred to as process drama, in the education of young children is main as a result of the vital roles it plays in early childhood development (Brown, 2017). The drama has often been linked to various roles, such as actively helping children acquire skills in dialogue, collaboration, and creative problem solving, which are a vital part of cognitive development. In addition, the drama has various significant roles in promoting critical thinking among these young children. The optimization of various key roles of drama through the integration of process drama in the pre-school curriculum can help facilitate cognitive development among children.

The drama has the role of improving social and cooperative awareness among children. As children grow, they must learn how to interact with parents, friends, and other persons within the society; children are expected to learn about the virtuous and punishable behavior, along with the social skills required for the process of interacting with other members of the society (Tombak, 2014). Drama plays a role in exposing children to learning outside the classroom. Dram-in-Education is a viable means of learning in early childhood development as it helps children by exposing them to the primary social and cooperative skills that will help them socialize better with other members of society. In addition, drama gives the attending students an opportunity to analyze various social roles and problems (Tombak, 2014). The presentation of various social problems within a dramatic play can help these children to understand the society and the vital relationships within it. Through the exposure to these social problems and the potential solutions, the pre-school learn also tend to acquire experience that can facilitate better problem-solving in the future. 

The drama also helps in the development of self-confidence and also reveals hidden meanings through self-experience. A person involved in a dramatic play tends to develop self-confidence as he or she has to present the actual play in front of a huge audience (Tombak, 2014). Children have to memorize dialogues, situations, and various musical and emotional variations, and as a result, helping these children to become more self-confident. Also, through dramatization, children have to explore various hidden meanings of the subject they are required to express through dialogue and acting. Resultantly, children are transformed into active partners of the knowledge-generating process. Furthermore, the physical, emotional, and intellectual awareness in drama helps to expound these children's knowledge (Tombak, 2014). By understanding the physical surrounding, along with the new understanding of the human environment and social circle, children develop knowledge and experience, which will promote improved handling of future situations.

Aside from the general role of drama in early childhood development, the incorporation process drama in the pre-school curriculum has a central role in the promotion of critical thinking. Aside from ensuring that children are more productive, socially intelligent, and more creative, pre-school has the role of ensuring that children are more skilled in problem-solving (Tombak, 2014). children in pre-school are confronted with problems arising in relationships and conflict with their peers, which contributes towards the development of skills that can help them develop problem-solving skills that are key to finding solutions to emerging problems in the future. With the incorporation of process drama in the pre-school curriculum, children are exposed to scenarios of societal problems and solutions (Uzunoz et al., 2017). That way, they start developing decision-making and problem-solving skills from an early age. Besides, the emotional maturities that come with the actual playing of dramatized scenarios help children to be wary of the emotional process of other characters. Thus, children become more considerate of others' perspectives, which positively impact their evaluation and judgment of the situation. The drama also promotes children's ability to work as part of a group (Sibonyikwa, 2018). Since drama is performed by a team, children become open to working in a group, which contributes to making them open-minded to different perspectives. It improves their flexibility to different reasoning and their willingness to be well informed. Thus, the ability to incorporate a wide range of evidence and arguments in problem-solving makes them better critical thinkers.

Arts, such as drama, helps children to think critically and creatively when looking for solutions to problems. Drama tends to instill skill in children, which helps them to practice reflective thinking and aesthetic inquiry (Brown, 2017; Uzunoz et al., 2017). Drama, in many instances, is used to point out perspectives that are often marginalized in the community. From a phenomenological perspective, the learning process is stimulated through the implicit meanings of spoken and written scripts along with bodily expressions. Therefore, since creative drama encompasses various verbal and nonverbal communication, it promotes learning. Besides, the drama is also a form of art that encourages students to explore various societal aspects, feelings, and occurrences through scripted roles and situations (Brown, 2017). The animation and representation of various subjects through improvisation and role-playing techniques in drama help learners to understand their world more through the integration of experience, inquiry, creativity, and knowledge, which combines to make students be more prepared to make choices and take responsibility for the outcome of their choices. Drama helps to trigger curiosity among students and help them develop emotionally, creatively, intellectually, and physically. Furthermore, students have the ability to reflect on their individual and collective pasts, reflect on present events, and imagine new occurrences in the future (Uzunoz et al., 2017). That way, process drama in pre-school can help children to learn about critical thinking, problem-solving, collaboration, creativity, and self-awareness.

Drama-in-Education, which entails the combination of both drama and education to cause a vibrant and resultant effect, employs the art form of drama as an educational pedagogy for various students, including those in the pre-school level. It combines various elements to promote students' physical, social, emotional, and cognitive growth (Okunola, 2012). The learning model increases self-awareness, improves clarity and creativity in the communication of ideas, and deepens the understanding of human behavior, motivation, culture, and history. Generally, the purpose of drama-in-education is to educate students in dramatic art, since dramatic art makes sense of human experience by presenting it dramatically (Okunola, 2012; Idogho, 2016). Unlike the mainstream education system, the incorporation of drama in education replaces the overemphasis on informational content with a more balanced inclusion of attention to the processing of ideas. Through the promotion of rational coordination, drama tends to make students more effective in critical thinking as compared to students partaking in an education system that mainly focuses on informational content.

Drama makes a child be more active in the pre-school learning process by placing him or her at the centerstage. A child is able to think creatively, critically, and multidimensionally, showing cognitive, social, and psychomotor development (Tombak, 2014). Besides, through participating in drama, children able to implement their knowledge and develop cooperative skills, where active learning is promptly realized. The bringing together of children into a group in drama enables them to think that they are part of the society, and thus embracing the values of the society. While the general aim of drama is not impacted by age, conditions, or objectives, the role of drama in promoting critical thinking among pre-school children varies as the age of the children, the relative conditions, and the objective of the leader changes (Tombak, 2014). All in all, the role of drama in improving social and cooperative skills, self-confidence, and the exploration of hidden meaning, along with its role in promoting the development of problem-solving skills, facilitates the general cognitive development and promotes critical thinking.

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