Glyphosate is a component found in herbicide such as Roundup which is applied to the leaves of plants in order to kill grasses and broadleaf plants. It comes in many forms such as acid or salts (Duke & Powles, 2008). In its sodium salt form it is useful in regulating growth of plants and ripening fruits. It is used heavily in the production of non-genetically modified plants (Duke & Powles, 2008). It is also used in cereals, oilseed rape, maize and sunflower, and alsofor weed control in vineyards, fruit orchards and olive groves. Currently, there are 14 genetically modified plants glyphosate resistant crops which are awaiting cultivation approval. Ten of these are for genetically modified cotton varieties as well as maize, soybeans and sugar beet (Earth, 2016) . Glyphosate is one of the most popular herbicides used in the U.S.A. (Oregon National Pesticide Center, 2016). In this paper, I purpose to research how glyphosate directly and/or indirectly affects human health. The premise of this argument will be based on consumption of crops treated with glyphosate and how glyphosate can contaminate adjacent crops that were not directly treated with the chemical and still impact health negatively.
Recently, people have been attributing glyphosate as the cause of many health issues such as cancer whose cases have been on the all-time high. Some studies have suggested that glyphosate possesses a carcinogenic potential but various studies on cancer rates in people have given conflicting results on whether use of products containing glyphosate is associated with cancer (Oregon National Pesticide Center, 2016; Thongprakaisang, Thiantanawat, Rangkadilok, & Satayavivad, 2013). The purpose of my thesis is to present an argument that will motivate the ban on use of glyphosate in the United States. I will present strong facts obtained from studies which have found glyphosate to negatively affect human health. Other than being informative, my thesis will bring to light a new perspective for readers that debate between organic versus non-organic food (organic food is not sprayed with chemicals such as glyphosate).
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Results of “Pre-Searching”
Preliminary searches have supported my research topic that indeed glyphosate is harmful to human health. Various scholarly articles have investigated the effects of glyphosate and found it to be a pathway to modern disease (Thongprakaisang, Thiantanawat, Rangkadilok, & Satayavivad, 2013). Celiac disease, which has become increasingly common over the last decade, is one modern disease that can be attributed to glyphosate (Samsel & Seneff, 2013). Aside from gastrointestinal disorders, glyphosate can also slowly affect obesity, diabetes, heart disease, autism, infertility, Parkinson’s disease, depression, Alzheimer’s disease and cancer (Samsel & Seneff, 2015). Residuals of 685 distinct pesticides were found in agricultural commodities and processed food products across Norway and Iceland. Additional samples were taken from other countries that are subject to more strict import controls. Glyphosate was the second most frequently found pesticide (found in 44.4% of the samples, double that of 2010), especially in oats (Samsel & Seneff, 2013). In this paper, after addressing the dangers caused by glyphosate present in foods, such as oats that are imported to the U.S it will clear that such imports should be held to more strict import regulations based on concentration levels of glyphosate.
In North America, celiac disease also known as gluten intolerance is a growing problem. A study done recently which tested frozen sera obtained between 1948 and 1954 for antibodies to gluten and then made a comparison with sera obtained from a matched sample from people living today showed a four-fold increase in incidence of celiac disease in the newer group compared to the older group (Samsel & Seneff, 2013). The study also determine that there is an association between celiac disease which goes undiagnosed with a 4-fold increased risk of death, due to increased risk of cancer. The conclusion mentioned that the prevalence of celiac disease which goes undiagnosed has dramatically increased in the United States during the past 50 years.
Glyphosate has been shown to disrupt gut bacteria in animals by causing pathogen overgrowth and destroying helpful forms. Evidence from a study on glyphosate exposure in carnivorous fish suggested that glyphosate can interfere with the breakdown of complex proteins in the human stomach. in turn, larger fragments of wheat will be left in the gut triggering an auto-immune response (Schuppan, Pickert, Ashfaq-Khan, & Zevallos, 2015). This will lead to defects in the small intestines’ lining. This might explain why there has been an acute rise in incidence of Celiac disease as the use of glyphosate on wheat in the United States has risen drastically (Samsel & Seneff, 2013).
Tryptophan is an essential amino acid thus it cannot be synthesized by mammalian cells. Depletion of serum Tryptophan leads to serotonin and melatonin depletion in the brain. The supplies of tryptophan can be depleted in plant-based food sources and through impaired tryptophan synthesis by gut bacteria as a result of the direct effects of glyphosate. A study showed that there is an observed 20 fold increase in the synthesis of tryptophan-derived polyphenolic flavonoids in the context of glyphosate (Samsel & Seneff, 2013). This shows evidence of impaired tryptophan synthesis. Patients who suffer from depression and sleep disorders register lower serum levels of tryptophan. When recovering patients have dietary tryptophan depletion, they relapse (Samsel & Seneff, 2015). This gives a strong indication that serotonin insufficiency because of glyphosate could be a factor in depression.
Since 1990 there has been an increase in the rate of irrational-school associated violent deaths in the U.S. serotonin defects have been associated with violent behavior and personality disorder. Glyphosate might be playing a role here by depleting serotonin bio-availability. Violence, impulsive aggression and criminal behavior have been attributed to disturbances in serotonin function in the brain. When farmers in India adopted Western agricultural methods which were based on extensive use of Roundup, high suicide rates were experienced (Samsel & Seneff, 2013). Suicide victims have low serotonin levels in their brains. Possibly, glyphosate might have played a role in this through depletion of tryptophan which suppresses serotonin (Samsel & Seneff, 2013).
It is well established that autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with dysbiosis in the gut (Samsel & Seneff, 2013). Most people view this as an important contributor to ASD. Autism has also been associated with shorter chain fatty acids and ammonia present in the gut. These by-products of anaerobic fermentation, suggest anaerobic bacteria overgrowth such as Clostridia which have been excessively found in the fecal matter of autistic children. A study which compared 40 children with autism with other normal children showed that autistic children had a lower serum ratio of tryptophan (Samsel & Seneff, 2013). When there is dietary depletion of tryptophan, autistic subjects tend to have repetitive behaviors and increased anxiety. A study of mice with defective serotonin transporter which decreases bioavailability of serotonin in the brain for neuronal signaling showed that the mice exhibited autism-like behaviors (Samsel & Seneff, 2013). Impaired serotonin caused by depletion of tryptophan as a result of glyphosate plays a role in autism development in subjects.
When a study on female rats administered wit Roundup was done, results confirmed that there was an increased incidence of liver and kidney pathologies described at an anatomorphological and blood/urine bio-chemical level (Mesnage, Arno, Cnstanzo, Malatesta, Séralini, & Antoniou, 2015). Male animals suffered from liver and kidney damage leading to an increase rate of premature death. Large number of gene functions was altered in the liver and kidneys within the Roundup treatment cohort (Mesnage, Arno, Cnstanzo, Malatesta, Séralini, & Antoniou, 2015). Glyphosate induces cytokines which have been identified as a factor in fatty liver disease. In extreme cases the disease can lead to cirrhosis and liver failure.
Moreover, glyphosate impairs sulfate supply. Preeclampsia, a condition which develops in the third trimester of pregnancy is rising in United States has been proposed to be due to impaired sulfate supply (Williams, Watson, & DeSesso, 2012). Glyphosate can also cross the placenta barrier. Clearly it can threaten both mother and child. In 1994 after the FDA authorized sale of Roundup Ready soybeans, Argentina followed suit. The RR soybeans later on spread through the country. World Bank statistics show that the fertility rate in Argentina has been declining since then. When 8 different pesticides were compared, it was observed that Roundup disrupted the ability of the cells to produce progesterone. It reduced synthesis levels by up to 94% in a dose- dependent manner without reducing total protein synthesis. An in vitro study of a mouse tumor Leydig cell line, Roundup interfered with the synthesis of testosterone, this was the case even in very low doses. Glyphosate reduces bio-availability of zinc. Semen has a high concentration of zinc thus zinc is important to the male reproductive system. The effects of glyphosate could be contributing to infertility (Williams, Watson, & DeSesso, 2012).
Rats exposed to glyphosate in their food supply died from massive mammary tumors. It was suggested that subsequent increased breast density which increases the risk of breast cancer could be caused by impaired sulfation (Thongprakaisang, Rangkadilok, Suriyo, & Satayavivad, 2013). This suggests that since glyphosate disrupts the bioavailability of sulfate, it could be a causative agent.Glyphosate suppresses cyclin-dependent kinase. Most multiple myeloma involve the dysregulation of the gene cyclin D. Thus glyphosate might be increasing the risk of this cancer indirectly (De Roos, et al., 2005).
The ‘epidemic’ of obesity started in the United States when glyphosate was introduced in the food chain. as usage of glyphosate increases, so does obesity. In Africa, South Africa has the highest rates of obesity. Coincidentally, it has overwhelmingly embraced use of glyphosate since 1970. There are big differences in nutrition and elemental abundances of residues of herbicides and pesticides between genetically modified and non-genetically modified produce. Organic produce contains fewer pesticide and thus less residues in the food we eat. Organic food is usually fresher because of less preservatives and thus tastes better. Organic food is more nutritious. The 2016 European study showed that levels of nutrients such as omega-3 fatty acids were 50% higher in organic produce (European Food Safety Authority, 2013).
In the United States about 30 million hectares of soybeans were planted with Roundup Ready GM soy taking up 94% of the production. The substantial equivalence concept has often been used to claim that GM crops are equivalent to their non-GM counterparts. Compositional studies have not included pesticide residues which will definitely add toxic properties to the final part. When a study was done it was found that samples of GM-soy contained residues of glyphosate which as discussed above is extremely harmful. The organic soybeans had a big difference in nutrient composition compared to their GM counterparts. They contained more protein compared to both GM-soy which was also showed a higher content of indispensable amino acids. There was a lower content and sum of saturated fats in the organic soybean material as well. The organic GM-soy contained less of all main sugars on average unlike to the organic soy which contained more sugars. There was a significant positive correlation between AMPA (glyphosate) residue levels and iron and content ofAMPA residue levels in the GM soybeans. Roundup Ready GM-soybeans sprayed in the growing season took up and accumulated glyphosate at 0.4 to 8.8mg/kg. In contrast organic soybeans did not accumulate these chemicals. This shows that organic soybeans are more nutritious and thus more beneficial compared to their GM counterparts (Bøhn, Cuhra, Traavik, Sanden, Fagan, & Primicerio, 2014).
Clearly, glyphosate poses tremendous danger to human health. Even soybeans that was grown on areas that had no application of glyphosate contained glyphosate indicating uptake by the plant from a soil reservoir belonging to the herbicide. The adverse effects of this chemical in subsistence production has been proven to be adverse to animal life and health. If people learn to embrace organic non-GMO produce, then we will have a stronger and healthier nation because effects on human health will be greatly minimized. Meanwhile, the legality of the glyphosate use in fertilizers should be revised.
References
Bøhn, T., Cuhra, M., Traavik, T., Sanden, M., Fagan, J., & Primicerio, R. (2014). Compositional differences in soybeans on the market: Glyphosate accumulates in Roundup Ready GM soybeans. Food Chemistry, 153 , 207-215.
De Roos, A., Blair, A., Rusiecki, J., Hoppin, J., Svec, M., Dosemeci, M., et al. (2005). Cancer incidence among glyphosate-exposed pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study. Environmental Health Perspectives , 49-54.
Duke, S., & Powles, S. B. (2008). Glyphosate: a once-in-a-century herbicide. Pest management science , 6319-325.
Earth, F. o. (2016, June 23). foeeurope . Retrieved from foeeurope website: www.foeeurope.org/.../foee_5
European Food Safety Authority. (2013). The 2 European Union report on pesticide residues in food. Retrieved June 24, 2016, from European Food Safety Authority: http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/scientific_output/files/main_documents/4038.pdf
Mesnage, R., Arno, M., Cnstanzo, M., Malatesta, M., Séralini, G., & Antoniou, M. (2015). Transcriptome profile analysis reflects rat liver and kidney damage following chronic ultra-low dose Roundup exposure. Environmental Health, 14(1) , 1-14.
Oregon National Pesticide Center. (2016, June 23). National-Pesticide Information Center-Oregon State University. Retrieved 2016, from Oregon State University - Oregon National Pesticide Center: http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/glyphogen.pdf
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Samsel, A., & Seneff, S. (2013). Glyphosate's Suppression of Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and Amino Acid Biosynthesis by the Gut Microbiome: Pathways to Modern Diseases. Entropy, 15(4) , 1416-1463.
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Thongprakaisang, S. T., Rangkadilok, N., Suriyo, T., & Satayavivad, J. (2013). Glyphosate induces human breast cancer cells growth via estrogen receptors. Food and Chemical Toxicology 59 , 129-136.
Thongprakaisang, S., Thiantanawat, A., Rangkadilok, N., & Satayavivad, J. (2013). Glyphosate induces human breast cancer cells growth via estrogen receptors. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 59 , 129-136.
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