The Effects of Maltreatment on Cognitive Development in School-Age Children

Childhood maltreatment is an intricate stressor that affects cognitive development in varying degrees. Evidence shows that abuse affects different regions of the brain, and can impair critical cognitive abilities, including inhibitory and working memory. Therefore, childhood maltreatment can result in adverse social, neurobiological, cognitive, and emotional development. Child mistreatment is multidimensional and demonstrates the failure of both the family and society to offer support, security, and safety. Forms of child mistreatment include physical, material neglect, sexual, and emotional neglect. It is necessary for policymakers, researchers, and educators to understand how family and the environment can disrupt a child’s development. Studying about child maltreatment serves as an entry into understanding various developmental systems, including reorganization and organization of different functions. The present literature review examines how child maltreatment can negatively affect cognitive development and learning abilities. The main themes identified include how maltreatment interferes with a child’s memory; the impact of child abuse on intellectual capacity; the connection between inhibitory control; and how maltreatment affects communicative and narrative skills and emotional development. The findings demonstrate that child abuse could result in adverse cognitive consequences. 

Child Maltreatment and Cognitive Functions 

Child maltreatment can result in numerous cognitive consequences, including adverse impact on memory. Some studies have examined how child abuse affects neurocognitive functions associated with brain and human behavior. The research by Augusti & Melinder 2013 (2013) investigated if child neglect and brain functions have a connection. The researchers used a control group or non-maltreated children to establish the specific effects of child abuse (Augusti & Melinder, 2013). By measuring three tasks, different memory tasks, the researchers confirmed that maltreated children use poor strategies to finish tasks. Therefore, Augusti & Melinder (2013) established that child abuse, which results in stress, affect working memory. In other words, stress hurts specific executive orders, such as working memory. 

Equally, the research by Carvalho et al. 2017 (2017) established a connection between child mistreatment and memory. The memory has a link to the functions of the prefrontal cortex. On the other hand, memory functions such as long-term rely on the effective functioning of the hippocampal regions. Carvalho et al. (2017) confirmed that child abuse or maltreatment affected the effective functioning of some brain regions. Moreover, other researches on animals have revealed that stressful situations such as split-up of young animals from their mothers during the early stages of development can alter the hippocampus in adult life. Hence, evidence shows that child maltreatment can cause or contribute to memory deficits (Carvalho et al. 2017). While Augusti & Melinder (2013) support this finding, they also argue that child abuse may not necessarily result in the use of high mental energy. In other words, maltreated and non-maltreated children appear to use the same mental abilities to solve problems. Overall, however, Augusti & Melinder (2013) agree that maltreatment can affect the working memory. There is a connection between efficiency and the effectiveness of the working memory. This implies that anxiety and stress can have an adverse effect on working memory in regards to accuracy. Hence, child abuse or stress can slow the effectiveness of the working memory. 

Furthermore, Carvalho et al. (2017) established that there is a connection between PTSD and specific memory systems. Hence, child maltreatment can be responsible for mental health illnesses such as PTSD. For instance, there is a connection between the findings presented by Carvalho et al. (2017) and Augusti & Melinder (2013) when it comes to the effect of child neglect on both the working and short-term memory. Additionally, when it comes to long-term memory, Carvalho et al. (2017) also established that there is a considerable connection between PTSD and abused children. Moreover, non-maltreated children did not show any signs of PTSD. Overall, maltreatment can cause significant impairment in long-term and short-term memory in childhood. 

Inhibition Control 

Studies have also established a link between inhibitory control and child abuse or maltreatment. However, the study by Augusti and Melinder (2013) did not establish such considerable differences. The study by Augusti and Melinder (2013) did not confirm the connection between abuse and inhibitory control because there was inhibition operationalization. However, Augusti & Melinder (2013) clarify that child abuse can result in deficits in particular types of inhibition, such as behavioral. On the other hand, the research by Pears et al. (2010) established that there is a connection between inhibition control and maltreatment. According to Pears et al. (2010), inhibitory control has a positive association with social-emotional skills and academic achievement among children in the first grade and kindergarten. Therefore, the finding by Pears et al. (2010) help to illustrate that inhibitory control capability is central to school readiness and academic performance. Other studies have also established that there is a connection between academic skills and greater inhibitory control. Additionally, it is necessary to point out that children who exhibit advanced inhibitory control have exhibit increased attentional responses and can regulate prepotent behavior. Hence, children with high inhibitory control are likely to record exceptional academic performance and exhibit pro-social skills than their peers (Pears et al. 2010). 

In addition, Pears et al. (2010) reported a negative relationship or association between foster placement and maltreatment history. Therefore, there is a suggestion that the history of child abuse has adverse consequences of inhibitory control. Pears et al. (2010) seem to conclude that parenting and the environment can influence or shape the onset of inhibitory control among toddlers and pre-school children. For instance, children who grew up in an environment with high adversity tend to exhibit limited inhibitory control. Moreover, there is a negative association between child abuse or foster placements and inhibitory control. For instance, Pears et al. (2010) clarify that research from post-institutionalized adoptees has revealed that most children tend to exhibit difficulties when it comes to attentional processes. Hence, the above findings support previous studies that suggest that early child abuse has a considerable impact on neurobiological functions. However, there is a need for future studies to establish the relationship between caregiver disruptions and child maltreatment. 

Intellectual Deficits 

Child abuse can cause considerable deficits in educational achievements. For instance, the study by Pears et al. (2010) found out that maltreated contributes to significant difficulties in academic performance. Moreover, the research by Pears et al. (2010) established that abused children start demonstrating difficulties in learning as early as pre-school. Moreover, equated with non-abused children, the study by Pears et al. (2010) concluded that abused children exhibited less social-emotional and academic skills from first grade or kindergarten. However, these findings were not new because the pre-school fostered children show considerable deficits in numerous areas, including psychosocial functioning, language, and neuropsychological functions. Nevertheless, the study by Pears et al. (2010) is unique because it is one of the first studies to focus exclusively on abused foster children at pre-school. The findings that abused children show difficulties in the early years of learning underlines the increased importance of screening preschool children for developmental challenges. In general, there is an increased need to test foster children for learning and emotional difficulties to recommend early interventions. 

Equally, the findings by Carvalho et al. (2017) demonstrate that young people who report several forms of abuse and neglect tend to underperform at school. Abused children have lower rendition abilities compared to non-maltreated peers. The findings by Carvalho et al. (2017) demonstrate that abused children experience schooling difficulties even after controlling socioeconomic and gender aspects. Moreover, Jaffee & Maikovich-Fong (2010) illustrated that chronic maltreatment has a connection to poor developmental outcomes. However, Jafee and Maikovich-Fong demonstrate that the effect of chronic abuse may depend on several factors, including age. These findings correspond with the conclusion made by Carvalho et al. (2017), revealing that maltreatment and poor learning outcomes can be explained from both directions. Firstly, child abuse can result in neurobiological damage, consequently leading to intellectual decline. Secondly, there is robust evidence that critical intellectual decline is the leading factor of child abuse. However, the aim of the research by Carvalho et al. (2017) was not to assess the occurrence of the intellectual deficit, but it seems valid to assume that children with a low intellectual capacity were vulnerable to abuse or maltreatment. 

The research by Pears et al. (2010) demonstrated that abused foster young people are trailing their peers in terms of social-emotional and academic abilities. In the absence of effective interventions, these academic and social-emotional deficits will result in long-term academic challenges across the years. Equally, in their study, Carvalho et al. (2017) demonstrated that abused children exhibited several symptoms when it comes to externalizing and scored higher in depression and withdrawal. As noted earlier, there is a connection between child abuse and mental disorders, such as PTSD. Mental disorders, which may include mood and anxiety disorders and substance abuse, can contribute to low academic achievement. Therefore, the findings by Carvalho et al. (2017) support other studies that illustrate that the adverse impact of child abuse appear in early age, and symptoms can persist into adult life and may include anxiety, depression, and PTSD. According to Pears et al. (2010), caregiver involvement and inhibitory control can be effective preventive measures. Hence, interventions need to focus on caregiver involvement as well as inhibitory control in early life to strengthen a child’s socio-emotional and academic skills. In general, early interventions would result in positive trajectories when it comes to social and academic success. 

Maltreated children seem to experience considerable challenges related to internalizing and externalizing. For instance, the study by Jaffee et al. (2010) established that chronically abused children exhibited more internalizing and externalizing challenges and lower IQ scores compared to non-maltreated children. However, these variations were small. In general, the study by Jaffee et al. (2010) established that abused children exhibited considerable externalizing challenges. There were also internalizing differences for children who experienced situational abuse and those who recorded chronic maltreatment. The findings by Jaffee et al. (2010) reveal that children abused constantly exhibit significant clinical issues both in an absolute and relative sense. Moreover, the findings by Jaffee et al. (2010) established that the inclusion of caregivers or family members help to lessen the adverse consequences resulting from maltreatment. In particular, Jaffee et al. (2010) found out that situationally and chronically abused children improved their internalizing and externalizing upon the inclusion of family members. It seems that parents’ depression, educational qualification, arrest history, and the environment had a considerable connection with chronic maltreatment as well as other behavioral issues. 

The findings by Grus (2003) are consistent with the above conclusions that abused children exhibit high levels of externalizing and internalizing symptoms when compared to non-maltreated peers. Equally, Pears et al. (2010) found out that chronically abused children have a high likelihood of exhibiting elevated symptoms of internalizing and externalizing issues, mainly because of intergenerational transmission of problems and risk factors, either mediated though the family environment or genetically. The research by Pears et al. (2010) is unique because it examined the relationship between caregivers’ mental health and child abuse. For instance, parents who abuse drugs or antisocial caregivers can contribute to a child’s chronic maltreatment. Pears et al. (2010) established that caregivers’ mental health could result in situational and chronic child abuse. For instance, mentally unstable caregivers tend to abuse children than emotionally stable parents. To some extent, both chronic and situational maltreatment contributed to lower levels of IQ and educational attainment because they affect children’s cognitive development. Overall, chronic maltreatment contributes to prolonged stress and can hinder brain development. 

The study by Romano et al. (2014) also supports the above findings. According to Romano et al. (2014), children with a history of abuse often record elevated challenges in learning. Moreover, these learning challenges can affect educational achievement and even mental well-being into adulthood. The connection between child abuse and educational attainment can be complex. Firstly, it is vital to understand the complicated relationship between main developmental processes such as sense of agency, emotion regulation, and attachment. Secondly, the interaction between environment systems such as schools and families can contribute to the negative impact on a child’s mental health as well as lower educational attainment (Romano et al., 2014). For lack of learning structures, combined with strained relationships between teachers can caregivers can lower a child’s learning outcomes. In general, it seems that the interplay between several forces can shape or influence educational outcomes among learners who have not experienced any form of maltreatment. Removing children from the care of their children can result in attachment issues, consequently leading to maltreatment issues. Moreover, in their study, Romano et al. (2014) established that from a theoretical point of view, it could be challenging to theorize the educational achievement among the abused young people concerning mental well-being and academic attainment. This is because the two domains are affected by child maltreatment and can mutually influence one another. Therefore, there is a need for future studies to define educational success by incorporating a child’s mental health. 

Communicative and Narrative Skills 

There is a relationship between child maltreatment and communication abilities. Maltreatment affects cognitive skills as well as educational attainments. Thus, child abuse can also affect narrative and communicative skills. The study by Lyon et al. (2010), for instance, investigated how maltreated and non-maltreated children responded to the “lie” and “truth” questions. Lyon et al. (2010) clarify that the ability to label tasks seems to improve with age. The children who took part in the study by Lyon et al. (2010) evaluated the “truth” quizzes better than “lie.” However, maltreated children showed varying patterns in terms of response, revealing that they were sensitive to the morality of lying. In general, a connection exists between how children understand the questions and the way they respond. This study was, therefore, the first to investigate how maltreatment and non-maltreatment influenced children’s oath-taking skills. The study demonstrated that the way caregivers pose questions influence how they understand the “truth” and “lie” questions. Lyon et al. (2010) also established that even young children have the ability to reject untruthful statements, and hence, distinguish statements between falsity and truth. 

Moreover, Hershkowitz et al. (2011) were the first to investigate the ability of children aged three years to respond to questions and offer relevant information concerning salient experiences. According to Hershkowitz et al. (2011), most previous studies focusing on memory development or communicative faced considerable challenges because of structured events or situations that tend to overlook natural communication abilities. Therefore, the study by Hershkowitz et al. (2011) provides unique insights about the capabilities of young children to respond to children and even offer vital information regarding their experiences. The findings established that, even though children had experienced some form of maltreatment, their communication capabilities were relatively good. However, Hershkowitz et al. (2011) undertook a field study, and therefore, it was challenging for the researchers to authenticate or validate the findings responses given by children. In general, the study provided vital information regarding the children’s narrative and communication skills. The findings by Hershkowitz et al. (2011) help to demonstrate that that abuse may not affect a child’s recall process and communication skills. The researchers used a sample of 299 children aged 3 years and examined the occurrence of suspected maltreatment. However, the children had a limited ability to respond to open-ended questions. 

Emotional Development 

There is a connection between cognitive development and emotional growth. Cognitive development can affect emotional skills. The research by Font & Berger (2014) wanted to establish the connection between mistreatment and mental and emotional well-being, particularly in the initial years of middle school. Font & Berger (2014) focused exclusively on cognitive outcomes, both expressive and receptive competencies and social-emotional outcomes, which include aggression, depression, and withdrawal. The findings by Font and Berger established that there is a connection between childhood maltreatment and cognitive skills, as well as behavioral issues. Moreover, Font & Berger (2014) found out that maltreating children aged 3-9 can impair their cognitive skills as well as affect their emotional capabilities. 

Moreover, Font & Berger (2014) established that physical neglect had a strong connection with cognitive skills and a positive association with behavioral concerns. Physical neglect refers to the deprivation of essential material needs. Importantly, the findings by Font & Berger (2014) were consistent with other past studies concerning the influence of poverty on emotional and cognitive functioning. However, Font & Berger (2014) clarify that existing theories are yet to associate physical neglect with considerable negative emotional outcomes strongly. Nevertheless, there is a possibility that stress related to poverty or material deprivation can significantly affect emotional development. Moreover, the study by Font & Berger (2014) established that supervisory neglect had a positive relationship with depression, aggression, and withdrawn symptoms. Hence, maltreatment can result in decreased levels of socio-emotional development. 

Additionally, there is a connection between caregiver depression and a child’s reduced emotional outcome. The study by Mustillo et al. (2011) probed the connection between child neglect and parental depression. The findings presented by Mustillo et al (2011). established that a connection exists between caregiver melancholy and high child mistreatment. Moreover, parental depression had a considerable impact on the emotional functioning capabilities of school-going children. The findings presented by Mustillo et al. (2011) correspond to those of Font & Berger (2014) that also establish that domestic violence and substance abuse can result in adverse emotional outcomes. In general, physical abuse can affect a child’s relationship with the parent or parent-child attachment, and therefore, affecting the emotional development. 

Conclusion 

From the above literature review, evidence shows that maltreatment can affect a child’s educational, emotional, and cognitive abilities. However, the interplay between maltreatment and educational outcomes or cognitive development is complex. In other words, the above findings suggest that numerous factors play a vital role in determining a child’s academic success. For instance, caregivers, school staff, and welfare programs contribute to the maltreatment and the development of a child in some way. As such, there is a need for several parties to work together in a manner that can enhance the welfare of children, and hence, improved educational and emotional outcomes. Teachers should collaborate with parents to establish a positive culture concerning a child’s learning expectations. The findings have found that parental attitudes or motivations can influence a child’s abilities. Finally, besides the creation of safer homes, there is a need for all parties to collaborate to improve the immediate environment surrounding children. 

References 

Augusti, E., & Melinder, A. (2013). Maltreatment is associated with specific impairments in executive functions: A pilot study.  Journal of Traumatic Stress ,  26 (6), 780-783.  https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21860 

Carvalho, J. C., Donat, J. C., Moura, T. C., Dertelmann, C. D., & Kristensen, C. H. (2017). Cognitive screening and clinical symptoms in victims of child maltreatment: Evidence of intellectual deficit in a Brazilian sample.  Psychology & Neuroscience ,  10 (4), 372-382.  https://doi.org/10.1037/pne0000109 

Font, S. A., & Berger, L. M. (2014). Child maltreatment and children's developmental trajectories in early to middle childhood.  Child Development ,  86 (2), 536-556.  https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12322 

Grus, C. L. (2003). Relations among children’s perceptions of maternal behavior, attributional styles, and behavioral symptomology in maltreated children.  Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics ,  24 (1), 81.  https://doi.org/10.1097/00004703-200302000-00024 

Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., Orbach, Y., Katz, C., & Horowitz, D. (2011). The development of communicative and narrative skills among preschoolers: Lessons from forensic interviews about child abuse.  Child Development ,  83 (2), 611-622.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01704.x 

Jaffee, S. R., & Maikovich-Fong, A. K. (2010). Effects of chronic maltreatment and maltreatment timing on children’s behavior and cognitive abilities.  Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry ,  52 (2), 184-194.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02304.x 

Lyon, T. D., Carrick, N., & Quas, J. A. (2010). Young children’s competency to take the oath: Effects of task, maltreatment, and age.  Law and Human Behavior ,  34 (2), 141-149.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-009-9177-9 

Mustillo, S. A., Dorsey, S., Conover, K., & Burns, B. J. (2011). Parental depression and child outcomes: The mediating effects of abuse and neglect.  Journal of Marriage and Family ,  73 (1), 164-180.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00796.x 

Pears, K. C., Fisher, P. A., Bruce, J., Kim, H. K., & Yoerger, K. (2010). Early elementary school adjustment of maltreated children in foster care: The roles of inhibitory control and caregiver involvement.  Child Development ,  81 (5), 1550-1564.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01491.x 

Romano, E., Babchishin, L., Marquis, R., & Fréchette, S. (2014). Childhood maltreatment and educational outcomes.  Trauma, Violence, & Abuse ,  16 (4), 418-437.  https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838014537908