Intelligence refers to the general mental ability to reason, solve problems, plan, think in an abstract way, comprehend complicated ideas, learn fast and learn from experiences (Reader et al., 2011). Compared to other animals, primates have been proven to be relatively intelligent. Likewise, there are suggestions that social learning and culture have been both the cause and consequences of enhanced primate intelligence (Reader et al., 2011). T he evolution of primate intelligence refers to the changes that have continu ally taken place in the lives primates since their conception. Scholars have established a correlation between brain size and cognitive capacity. T he gestation period, on the other hand, influenced the development of the brain. Thus, t he length of time that a primate spent in its mother’s womb was a key determinant of the animal’s intelligence. Several hypotheses have also been formulated in a bid to explain the evolution of primate intelligence. The hypothesis of ‘ecological intelligence’ suggests that the challenges experienced during foraging drove this evolution . On the other hand, the ‘social intelligence’ hypothesis argues that there is a connection between the primates’ complicated social lives, their big brains and advancement in intellect. Thus, social learning is a fundamental component of social intelligence. Other factors that determine d the cognitive capacity of primates include the ir social organization and ma ting patterns . This paper will argue that the gestation period, brain size, mating patterns and social organization played a vital role in the evolution of primate intelligence . It will also elaborate on the evolutionary modifications that took place and some of the theories that have been proposed for these changes .
Primate Intelligence and its determinants
Primate intelligence refers to the ability of primates to critically think about the environment in which they live and influence the activities taking place in that environment in a way that impact s t heir lives positively. It involves the use of the brain in undertak ing certain activities within th at environment while at the same time influencing the activities and actions of other creature s . This implies that primate intelligence is significantly involved in determining the social organization a s well as the mating patterns ( Mitani et al., 2012) . T he brain coordinates t hese activities . Thus, the primate’s brain size plays a significant role in not only determining the level of intelligence but also the execution of that intelligence . The length of time taken in brain development determines its size as well as capacity. In this regard, primate intelligence and gestation period are inseparable. A primate wi th a large, highly developed b rain is expected to exhibit a more complex intell ectual behaviour compared to one that has a small and less developed brain. Similarly, a primate that takes a short period in the womb is immature or not well developed to undertake certain intelligent actions . This is as compared to th e primate whose development took extended periods of time.
Delegate your assignment to our experts and they will do the rest.
Social Organization and Primate Intelligence
Scholars have established a link between primate’s social organization and development o f intelligenc e . Th e animals whose social organization involved the establishment of hierarchies with distinct roles and responsibilities were found to be more intelligent compared to those with less distinct social hierarch ies . For instance, o nce primates ha d organize d themselves in social hierarch ies , each member was given di stinct role to play. Thus, i t was the sole responsibility of each member of the social organization to undertake their assigned duties diligently and perfectly. This implies that each member ha d to posses the necessary skills and competenc ies so as to delive r the highest standard of service to the parent group and the society as a whole ( Parker & McKinney, 2013) . Thus, a s time went by, the members of the social organization continue d to acquire more experience and skills in fulfilling their roles. Consequently, th is increas ed their intellectual ability .
The organization of primates’ social life into hierarchies and the assigning of responsibilities g ave the members an opportunity to learn new activities , and acquire new ski ll s and experiences. For instance, as the young members of a particular social group were trained for their future roles and responsibilities, their intellectual ability was also developed . Th ese benefits were unavailable to the primates that d id not live in such social structures . P rimate s whose life wa s organized in to social groups were likely to be more intelligent compared to th ose who lacked similar structures. T hus , intellectual development wa s at the center of primate families that were h ighly organized into social groups ( Parker & McKinney, 2013).
The size of the social grouping also determine d the relative ability of the brain to develop more neocortex. This was more enhanced in grou ps that had more members as opposed to th os e with fewer members ( Mitani et al., 2012). A larger group experience d i ncrease d competition in its social interaction s, thus influencing the intellect ual development of its members . Besides, a larger group experience d more diverse effects of its members’ actions . One of the driving factors for this was the increased competition for the available resources. Efforts geared towards solving such problem s significantly influenced the development of the neocort ex ( Byrne & Whiten, 2013). Further, the M achiavelli I ntelligence hypothesis argues that intelligence is as a result of the manipulation of the social organization of the primates . This also explains th e phenomenon further. According to Parker & McKinney (2013), the formation of alliances among the social groups led to deception . The two distinct techniques were used by primates to push members of their social groups to gain more intelligence.
Extractive Foraging and Primate Intelligence
The evolution of intelligence in primates has also been linked to their feeding strategies. This theory argues that the strategies adopted by primates determined their mental development. In support of this theory, extractive foraging has been cited . Extractive foraging refers to the location and/or processing of embedded foods (King, 1986). These foods include insects, underground roots, or hard-shelled fruits and nuts. While some animals require tools in extractive foraging, primates can extract the embedded foods without the aid of tools . This trait has been compared to the extractive foraging techniques used by other mammals in a bid to establish whether or not cognition is involved in extractive foraging. Likewise, scholars have in the past sought to establish whether extractive foraging as used by primates is unique in such a way as to imply that it played a vital role in the development of primate intelligence.
T he size of the brain of primates is relatively large compared to that of other animals. Th is determine d the ability to carry out extractive foraging in primates. I t is believed that th e difference in size is linked to the capacity of primates to conduct extractive foraging . Likewise, t he process of extractive foraging among primates is connected to the ir high cognitive abilit ies ( Hofman & Falk, 2012). A bigger portion of the primates’ brain is dedicated to cognitive ability . This in turn determines the ir foraging ability. Th erefore, a primate with a highly developed , and big-sized brain will have a bigger portion of the brain dedicated to foraging and cognitive ability. On the other hand, a less developed and small -sized b rain in a primate mean s that the p ortion dedicated for cognitive function is small. Extractive f oraging wa s also an important factor in determining how intelligent a primate w as in identifying the kind of food to take ( Mitani et al., 2012). Thus, in primates, the level of intelligen ce determined the ability of the primates to coordinate and control not only the preferred foods but also the ir feeding habits .
Some foods have been acknowledged as being able to a dd value to the development of intelligenc e amongst p rimates while others do not. If a primate is constantly engaged i n feeding on foods that have a negative influence on the ir intellectual development , its offspring s are likely to have lower levels of intell ectual development. The reverse is true for primates with positive feeding habits ( Parker & McKinney, 2013). The role of extractive foraging in determining the development of intelligence in primates is varied. It ranges from the role of olfactory cues, the ability of the primates to put their dexterity in action , and the strength with which the y use their extractive foraging abilities to influence the activities of others. According to Hofman & Falk (2012), t he rigors of foraging amon g primates ha ve bee n central in determin ing the primates’ intell ectual abilit ies.
The formation of a spatiotemporal map of foraging among primates can be attributed to their intellect . Often, p rimates fe e d on materials that are widely distributed across the environment and occur freely in the natural ecosystems. This g i ve s the m an opportunity to feed on the food of their choice and partake of it at their preferred time. This exemplifies how best the primates engaged their intelligence in a constant activity of determin ing their dietary intake ’s b est combination . This was done while putting into consideration the best nutrient content. They also engaged their intelligence in reaching to the food resources that were located far from their domiciles thus increasing the ir cognitive capacit y and subsequently increasing the development of their intelligence ( Byrne & Whiten, 2013). This underscores the connection between the primates’ feeding habits and intellectual development and capacity. According to Parker & McKinney (2013) , this characteristic has determined the primates’ foraging ability for long, thus determining the ir level of intelligence . Besides, the primates engaged their intelligence in determining the best way of storing the food resources for future needs.
Ecological Intelligence Hypothesis
This hypothesis postulates that greater intelligence was necessary as it helped the primates to comprehensively exploit their ecological circumstances (Reader et al., 2011). This was especially in so far as obtaining food was concerned. The ecological circumstances also varied and were characterized by a change of diets from gummivore and strepsirrhine insectivore diets to haplorrhine diets. The latter were composed of foliage and fruit. The new ecological circumstances called for more complex, yet flexible behavior. Moreover, there was the emergence of ‘resource patchiness.' This entailed wide distribution of resources in the primates’ natural habitats. As a result, intelligence was highly desirable amongst the primates as they had to search for food resources that were widely distributed across the habitats. Moreover, there were seasonal changes in the availability of food. For instance, fruits were not available in the same trees throughout the years, but rather only during limited periods of time. Thus, in response to this, a number of traits were highly desirable. These included better memory, enhanced ability to learn from and about the environment and the ability to plan ahead (King, 1986). These characteristics increased efficiency in finding food and resulted in less time wastage that would be due to the location of barren trees and fruitless foraging. Moreover, the ability for ‘resource extraction’ is another critical component of the ecological intelligence hypothesis. In this case, intelligence was highly desirable in the individuals that were tasked with undertaking complex tasks such as extracting food. This entailed the location of the sites from where to find and dig up roots, breaking hard-shelled fruits and nuts, and finally finding the insects hiding under the barks of trees. These necessities and tasks are acknowledged to have significantly influenced the evolution of the primate intelligence.
Flexible behavior hypothesis
During the evolution of primates, selection greatly favoured the animals that were better at learning and inventing new behaviours . In this regard, the survival of the primates was highly pegged on their ability to adapt to changing as well as new living conditions (King, 1986). This is because each shift in the environment and living conditions resulted in a new set of opportunities and challenges. This phenomenon meant that the primates had to adapt to the changing living scenarios continuously . On the other hand, the shifts not only influenced change in the primates’ habitats but were also the drivers of the change in behaviour and other attributes. Thus, with the changing living conditions, new habits had to be formed. The new behaviours allowed the primates to procure the necessary resources and deal with emerging social challenges as their circumstances changed. These needs fuelled the development of larger brains and more neocortex hence enhancing the intellectual development of the primates.
Conclusion
The evolution of intelligence cannot be decoupled from the overall evolution of primates. This is because the survival of primates over the changing times was highly linked to their brain capacity. Thus, a number of theories and hypotheses have emerged to explain the evolution of intelligence in primates. These include ecological intelligence, social intelligence, flexible behavior hypothesis and the extractive foraging hypothesis. On the other hand, the role of brain size, gestation period, social organization, and the primates mating patterns in the evolution of their intelligence cannot be overstated . However, the different factors have been seen to be inter-dependent. Therefore, in conclusion, the evolution of primate intelligence cannot be pegged on one single aspect, but rather the interplay of various related factors.
References
Byrne, R. W., & Whiten, A. (2013). Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the
evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans . Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Hofman, M. A., & Falk, D. (2012). Evolution of the primate brain: From neuron to behavior .
Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
King, B. J. (1986). Extractive foraging and the evolution of primate intelligence. Human evolution , 1 (4), 361-372.
Mitani, J. C., Call, J., Kappeler, P. M., Palombit, R. A., & Silk, J. B. (2012). The evolution of
primate societies . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Parker, S. T., & McKinney, M. L. (2013). Origins of intelligence: The evolution of cognitive
development in monkeys, apes, and humans . Baltimore [u.a.: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.
Reader, S. M., Hager, Y., & Laland, K. N. (2011). The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences , 366 (1567), 1017-1027. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0342
