Urban planning refers to the designing and regulating space use which emphasizes in physical forms, economic activities and social effects of the urban areas and focuses on the location various activities within urban areas. Urban planning is a complex concept that entails issues such as political and social processes that underlie land use and the built environment. Urban development in the United States has passed through various stages and steps which has contributed to the appearance of American cities as they are today. Multiple factors such as the development of technology and green ecosystems contributed to urban planning in the United States. Although urban planners in the USA were contributors in the urban planning, they did not carry out most of the plan in most of the cities in the country. Idealism and realism were the key aspects which supported urban planning in the state. This paper examines the history of urban planning in the United States.
Modern urban planning has originated from social movements in urban changes which started in the 19th century due to the disorder of industrial cities (Wh, 2002). Modern urban planning was lead to the formation of ideal cities as people and goods were moved, adequate sanitation and social amenities provided. Contemporary planners are trying to balance social equity conflicting demands environmental sensitivity, economic growth as well aesthetic appeal in the urban centers. The modern urban planning process is formally used in urban places, neighborhood and project plans as well as in policy alternatives.
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Role of Technology and Green Spaces in Urban Planning
Development of modern technology has played a vital role in redefining urban planning as the planning and building of small cities in the USA was based on the internet by using big data analytics. Technology plays a crucial role in revolutionizing urban planning, and urban planners should use innovation to establish small cities which entirely depend on technology. Urban planners used the internet and data analytics for the creation of smart and sustainable developments in the towns (Rotuna et al., 2017). Internet development has facilitated the establishment of an elaborate network which permits connections and seamless communication between devices and technologies, and they can be used in creating small cities.
The internet has ensured that cities developed incorporates environmental pollution controls, smart parking, and surveillance as well as facilitating control of vehicle traffics (Zhang, 2017). Urban planners use the internet to implement developments which reduce human involvement while enhancing efficiency, effectiveness, and sustainability in the cities. Big data analytics is used in developing components of smart cities such as traffic control and surveillance. The planners develop data management processes which help them in processing data to obtain insights which inform about the urban planning process. Technology has enabled urban planners to incorporate sustainable urban spaces in their planning. The Internet has ensured equity and self-sufficiency in urban areas, and small cities provide a chance for government and private sectors to leverage the power of big data and internet to improve efficiency. Governments should enjoy these services to enhance the capacity of delivering essential services to people in society.
According to Kondo et al., (2018), green spaces play an essential role in urban planning as they help in promoting human health in the cities. Urban planners used green spaces to reduce stress levels and pollution exposure was hence improving the health of people living in urban areas. The green spaces reduce the risk of cancers, lowers cases of cardiovascular diseases and improves mental which has reduced mortality rates and improved physical activity. Green spaces are used in handling violent crimes in urban areas and lower emissions of greenhouse gases and allow enhanced flood management. Urban planners used green spaces to regulate heat in urban areas and enhance social interactions and physical activity in urban areas. Although incorporating green spaces in urban areas is expensive, urban planners need to balance financial constraints of green spaces with the importance of secure health for the people.
History of Urban Planning
Urban planning in the USA started in the year 1880-1930 and had developed with time leading to the creation of modern cities. There are several things which indicated efforts made by urban planners in planning for urban development including having orderly or radial street systems and dividing the town into specialized functional sections as well as the establishment of commanding key sites such as palaces, civic buildings, and temples. Advancement of fortification systems, development of drainages and water supplies were indicators of urban planning efforts. According to Tarr (2002), most of the urban planning evidence is noted in small cities which were developed during colony times and the central cities in the country designed to substantial sizes before the state started imposing its control over these cities. America has little buildings for centuries until cities began growing up as church centers, marketing and trading places, and feudal authority centers. The growth of population in the cities lead to overcrowding which was increased by wall constrictions fortifications around the towns. The congestion led to the blocking of air and light and poor sanitation in the cities. Particular quarters in the towns were restricted from some classes, nationalities, and trades due to customs and fiat. This restricted are still found in some contemporary in the country.
Physical forms of the cities and towns in America were similar to the patterns of villages with a lot of street and crossroads which are in a circular pattern or irregular shapes. However, rectangular patterns were used on the newer town developed during urban planning. Most of the streets in the cities were small resembling footways which were used as a medium of communication than of transportation. Although the growth of population in the cities led to the expansion of walls to create more space, few cities exceed a mile in length. Sometimes city sites were changed and this facilitated development of many more cities which were one day walk apart. Urban planning in the USA reemerged during the Renaissance. Though renaissance aimed to provide military defense and enhance circulation, the primary objective was to bring glorification of a state. Since the 16th century, various cities and towns were established and constructed with great splendor (Barrington-Leigh & Millard-Ball 2015). Although the resulting cities pleased and inspired the citizens, they did not improve people’s health to make them comfortable in their homes. Also, the developed cities were not efficiency in manufacturing marketing and distribution in the country.
Urban planning in the United States relied on the concept of public space which was centrally located. However, the plans differed in the prescriptions given for development of residential. For example, New England town developed around common rounds; initially being a pasture for offering society life focus and a place for a meetinghouse, smithy, tavern, and shops. Later the town was developed in the primary squares of towns and cities across the country. After the establishment of the New England town, there was a city designed as a single house which was used as a norm for modern places. City plans were carried out in central plaza, square or area as they provided an adequate focal point for meetings.
By the 19th century, population growth increased, businesses expanded and profits increased which led to the development of more urban centers. The cities and towns which developed during this time showed high levels of wealth luxuries and low levels of poverty in the country. Corruption and exploitation in the country facilitated the progressive movement in the town and cities. The first demand for the development of these cities and towns was improving sanitation by eradicating slums ugliness, disorder, reducing congestion and risks of contradicting diseases. Improvement of engineering during urban planning has contributed to the increase of public health, water supply, and sewerage in cities towns which are essential for the further development of urban centers. The first housing reform was done in the 19th century in which strict measures were ensured (Linovski & Loukaitou-Sideris, 2013). However, the implementation of housing reforms slowly because the government did not finance the upgrading of existing dwellings and the little rent payments of slum residents did not provide incentives for landlords to renovate and improve their houses. Nevertheless, improvements of housing were made as new housing structures were developed and housing standards were raised by new legislations formed.
During this progressive era, the urban environment was improved through understanding the importance of recreation in the cities. Parks were established to offer visual relief and healthy places for play and relaxation to the people. Urban planners later created playgrounds in congested areas and developed games and sports facilities for both children and adults which helped in shortening workdays for the people. Park movement supporters believed that chances for outdoor recreation would provide a civilized impact for working individuals who are confined in overcrowded housed and unhealthy workplaces. For example, New York’s central park was envisioned in 1850 and architects designed it to become a widely imitated facility. A study by Schwarzer (2016), showed that the park contributed to the separation of pedestrians and vehicular traffic and created a romantic landscape in the heart of the city. This indicates that the establishment of parks greatly enhances real estate values in the environment.
The United States of America implemented grandeur vision and established City Beautiful movement which was developed in Chicago and became the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893. This exposition style developed ideal planning which many cities across the world imitated. Therefore, the City Beautiful archetype constituted of grand malls and civic constructions which were majestically established and contrasted and protested against the ugly and disorder environment. However, model diffusion in the USA was restricted by the limitation of the state power and by the model of the City Beautiful weak potential for improving the profitability of a business.
According to Friedmann (2009), the most influential factor in the development of urban planning in the United States is transportation technology which shaped the physical form of contemporary cities. Improvement of transport modes from foot and horse to merchandized vehicles caused significant expansion of urban centers. Employees started to live far away from their workplaces and goods could be transported quickly and easily from production points to the markets. However, the evolution of the vehicles was a disadvantage because automobiles and buses congested in the city streets. The threatening traffic strangulation dramatized the need to develop new circulation system types in an orderly manner. Improvement of transportation networks formed the main focus for urban planning especially in the establishment of subway systems constructed in New York. Municipalities worked to easing vehicle traffics through extending and widening roads.
Development of Contemporary Urban Planning
According to Levy, (2013), in the 21st century, the ways of urban planning in the United States did not match with the replicable process and desirable results. This type of plan innovates participatory mode where residents are involved and more affected by reforms in planning operations for their local housing. Although contemporary planning is still limited in its adoption, it has spread to other countries across the world. The degree of involving public residents in urban planning indicates democracy in the country enjoyed in the society. When a government in a country is authoritative, this shows that urban planning is authentic when there is a participatory framework in the plan, the planner’s role changes from being an expert to being a mediator between different groups involved in the group planning. The change of planner’s role has been acquired by theorists who support communication rationality concept. However, the contemporary plan has faced criticism indicating that this method can suppress innovation or enhance wishes of the most powerful and this cause results which contradict public interests. This planning concept has use of responses such as ‘not in my backyard’ which prevents the construction of affordable constructions and required public facilities when the neighboring people can reject buildings which they feel lower their property values.
There are different factors which have contributed to the development of contemporary urban planning. These factors include the project types where planners work, unavailability of consensus over goals and processes and the different strategies used various cities, towns, and countries. Although planners are aiming at protecting the environment, various objective emphasizes such as economic development have changed. Urban planners are engaged in economic development act as organizational executives working in marketing. This helps them in promoting their towns and cities potential investors and examine physical development depending on the capital attractiveness and potentiality of offering jobs. These planners work to attain developmental agreements with constructors and organizations which participate in the local economy. For example, in the United States, planning agencies are working in enhancing economic development in the country and are involved in negotiable deals with private investors.
Conclusion
Urban planning has been undergoing significant changes. In the past, urban planners were primarily concerned with creating functional spaces. Little to no consideration was made for the need to ensure that areas promoted human health and were sustainable and efficient. Most of the small cities started as church centers, marketing and trading centers with no roads only footpaths. This is changing as urban planners are recognizing the importance of ensuring that urban spaces are more than merely functional. Technologies such as the internet and data software’s are designed to analysis hence planners can create areas that are as sustainable as they are livable. These technologies promise to facilitate the establishment of urban centers that incorporate critical infrastructure and facilities that enhance the experiences of inhabitants. Green spaces are also redefining urban planning. The various changes urban planning is undergoing highlight the versatility and dynamic nature of the built environment.
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