Depression is one of the most common mental health disorders worldwide . In the United States (U.S), it affects approximately 15 million adults, which accounts for 6.7% of those aged 18 years and above in a year. Against this background, what are the implications of these figures on child development? M aternal depression is a pressing issue within the U.S public health. The condition is deemed a risk for the cognitive and socioemotional development of children. Moreover, i t influences th e children from birth to later stages of development (Leahy-Warren et al. , 2011). P ostpartum depression (PPD) is the most common type of maternal depression and h as direct implication s for the well-being of a child. Similarly, t he consequences of this form of depression are not limited to infancy but rather extend into other stages of development, for instance from toddlerhood to the school going age.
The relationship between PPD and the child outcomes are intricate . Despite data gaps in the relationship, there is a consensus amongst scholars that children born to depressed women are at least three times more likely to develop adjustment problems. Even in the infant stage, these children are more liable to be less responsive to vocal and facial expressions, are fussier and have elevated levels of stress hormones in comparison to infant s born to depression-free mothers (Leahy-Warren et al. , 2011). Thus, this phenomenon has emerged as a major research area within the maternity-child nursing. Overall , the study of child development and growth in relation to depression is of grea t public health importance.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
E mpirical studies on PPD on mother-infant interaction have established that the most important implication s are the face-to-face exchanges. M orais et al. (2013) argue that “ T he intersubjective exchanges determine the course of social, emotional and cognitive development. ” P revious studies have also drawn a comparison between non-depressed and depressed mothers in behavioral terms. It was established that t he non-depressed mothers spent more time playing, watching and talking with their babies. Conversely, the depressed mothers showed less spontaneity, less vocalization, fewer expressions of interest as well as more intense filed protests from the children. Thus, depression amongst mothers should be an issue of concern for the benefit of raising well-rounded children and responsible citizens
The m others suffering from depression are more likely to abscond child-well-being roles such as buckling up children in a car, arranging medical checkups or even childproofing homes (Goodman et al., 2011). Further, t he depressed mothers tend to be inconsistent in parenting. This brings about a domino effect where by their fluctuating engagement and in discipline may leav e the children in unstable environments. In some instances, PPD can bring forth a vicious cycle. T his is observed when mothers do not initiate proper response towards their children . Consequently, the children mirror back the same behavior, bringing about more concern to general malaise, and anxiety to the mother. According to Parsons et al. (2011), postnatal depression ( PND ) is also common and affect s one in every ten new mothers annually. However, these statistics are also noted to differ depending on the economic environment of these familie s . According to Leahy-Warren et al. ( 2011) “I n poor economic environments, especially in the context of low levels of social support, parenting difficulties are more likely, and the risk of negative child outcomes is raised . ”
Several factors contribute to the implication s of PND on the behavior and development of children. On the mother’s part, t hese include the type of support available to the mother from her family, friends and partner , her ability to manage symptoms of depression, and lastly the severity and duration of the depression (Ramchandani et al., 2011). On the child’s part, factors such as resilience, temperament, and time spent with the mother, among others, may be linked to the behavioral variations . All the above factors are important since a child’s development is a product of biological and behavioral traits as well as the sociocultural environment.
Postpartum depression has critical implications for both the mother and child. With regard to the child, the effects can be observed in three areas; fear regulation, social engagement, and reactivity to physiological stress. These outcomes are deemed as the foundations of the socio - emotional development . They a re also linked to an infant’s ability to regulate physiological stress and control negative emotions. Goodman et al., (2011) note d that in a group of 100 infants , the ones linked to depressed mothers scored poor ly in three measures after nine months. The infants had low levels of social engagement especially in interact ing with their mothers . The y were also unable to self-regulate during times of distress . Further, t he infants raised by mothers suffering from PND showed high baseline levels of physiological stress response as well as pronounced stress reactivity.
Roughly , two-thirds of infants of depressed mothers grow insecure attachments compared to a third of the normal population. This risk is enhanced when the mother does not have a partner (Ramchandani et al., 2011). Studies have further confirmed an association between PND and disorganized attachment in infants and school going children. If unattended, the children tend to lack coherent strategies of seeking comfort from other caregivers in their development. These children usually mirror their mothers’ PND symptoms such as sadness, lethargy and extreme distress on separation. Thus, if this is not addressed , the number of unstable children is likely to increase, hence adversely affecting the society as a whole.
SOLUTIONS/ RECOMMENDATIONS
Focussing on either the root causes or the symptoms single-handedly is not enough to treat the condition. Rather, a holistic approach is more likely to work. Thus, to counter the negative implications of maternal depression on infant development , several strategies can be employed. Firstly, there is a need for increased investment in Pharmacotherapy . In this approach , depressive episodes can be contained using antidepressant drugs. T he most common antidepressants include Tricyclic and SSRIs (Goodman et al., 2011). Secondly, s ocial support and psychoeducational interventions during infancy have been confi rmed to aid infant development. These interventions focus on boosting a mother’s sensitivity, thus altering the mother’s mood (Goodman et al., 2011). The interventions are also inclined towards enhancing mother-child interactions. Thirdly, f amily therapy is also useful in countering maternal depression. This intervention brings all family members on board and focuses on communicati ng about the illness and its implications to all the family member s ( Goodman et al., 2011).
Depression is not only a concern in the U.S but also globally. D epression affects the majority of new mothers and goes undetected in many instances. The mental illnes s has a direct impact on the socioemotional and behavioral development of an infant. This affect s the child’s temperament, social engagement, as well as self-regulation. Possible solutions include pharmacotherapy, s ocial support and psychoeducational interventions , and lastly family therapy. Thus, t he study of child development and growth in relation to depression is of grea t public health importance. Besides promoting the health of children, it is vital in building a vibrant and well-balanced society.
References
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal Depression and Child Psychopathology: A Meta-Analytic Review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review , 14 (1), 1-27. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1
Leahy-Warren, P., McCarthy, G., & Corcoran, P. (2011). Postnatal Depression in First-Time Mothers: Prevalence and Relationships between Functional and Structural Social Support at 6 and 12 Weeks Postpartum. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing , 25 (3), 174-184. doi:10.1016/j.apnu.2010.08.005
Morais, M. D., Lucci, T. K., & Otta, E. (2013). Postpartum depression and child development in the first year of life. Estudos de Psicologia (Campinas) , 30 (1), 7-17. doi:10.1590/s0103-166x2013000100002
Parsons, C. E., Young, K. S., Rochat, T. J., Kringelbach, M. L., & Stein, A. (2011). Postnatal depression and its effects on child development: a review of evidence from low- and middle-income countries. British Medical Bulletin , 101 (1), 57-79. doi:10.1093/bmb/ldr047
Ramchandani, P. G., Psychogiou, L., Vlachos, H., Iles, J., Sethna, V., Netsi, E., & Lodder, A. (2011). Paternal depression: an examination of its links with father, child, and family functioning in the postnatal period. Depression and Anxiety , 28 (6), 471-477. doi:10.1002/da.20814
