The importance of sports cannot be overstated. Sports boast both ethic and physiological benefits. Specifically, sports improve an individual’s performance conditions. They also have an unprecedented impact on the personality and character of the individual sports person ( Maughan et al., 2004 ). Further, any sports activity, at any given level is not only a competition but also emulation with respect to other competitors and towards the individual athletes. As a result, since time immemorial, individuals have researched the various ways of artificially improving the performance of athletes, as well as the athletes' physical preparation and training. For instance, in ancient Greece, the athletes would consume various herbs in a bid to improve their performance during the Olympic Games ( Tsitsimpikou et al., 2011; Baron et al., 2007; Maughan et al., 2004 ). In recent years, especially in the early nineties, individuals competing in marathons would engage in various pharmacological practices such as the consumption of stimulants. Notable among these stimulants was strychnine. Nevertheless, numerous changes have taken place since then.
Over the years, and with pharmacological advancement, the use of drugs to enhance performance by athletes has become rampant. This has led to the emergence of ‘doping' as a global phenomenon ( Baron et al., 2007; Maughan et al., 2004 ). The etymology of the word doping is uncertain. However, ‘to dope’ has been conceptualized as the act of ‘administering stimulants’ while ‘dope’ is taken to mean a ‘stimulant substance.’ In sports medicine, doping refers to the consumption of substances or taking refuge in particular approaches that have the power of artificially increasing the performance of an athlete during a sports completion, and which goes against sports morals and despite their impact on the psychological and physical health ( Handelsman, 2006 ). Drugs and other substances that are pharmacologically and biologically active, and whose use is considered doping are classified on the basis of their pharmacological and chemical character as well as their corresponding effect ( Maughan et al., 2004 ). This is carried out in compliance with the requirements and directions of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as well as other global entities that are responsible for mainstreaming the sports sector.
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One notable organization that has emerged in response to the rise of doping is the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). Initiated by the IOC and based in Canada, WADA is charged with promoting, coordinating, and monitoring the fight against the use of drugs in sports ( Handelsman, 2006 ). The foundation’s key activities are monitoring the World Anti-Doping Code, education, scientific research, and the development of relevant anti-doping capacities. The WADA has since made significant modifications to the IOC Medical Commission’s Prohibited List. This list is updated regularly with all changes made being anchored on scientific research ( Handelsman, 2006 ). The changes are also informed by consultations with key representatives of medicine and sports. A new version of the Prohibited List is published by WADA every year. The agency also enlists various examples of prohibited substances. Apart from the examples of prohibited methods or substances in specific groups, other additional substances that are not listed might be considered as doping. These are the substances that are characterized by the same chemical structure as the prohibited ones, or the same biological effect(s).
The sense of euphoria or empowerment effects that are induced by using doping substances is associated with organic and/or organic alterations and malfunctions, which are likely to be irreversible. As a result, doping ought to be viewed as not only a sports offense but also a crime against the drug users’ health ( Handelsman, 2006 ). In this case, the crime of doping is committed when someone procures to other, assumes, encourages or administers, by any means, the use of substances or drugs that are pharmacologically active, including the use of substances of endocrinology or hematologic nature, that are conceptualized as doping substances. These substances ought not to be legitimated by various pathologic conditions and are capable of modifying the biological or psychological conditions of a human organism. This is in a bid to affect an athlete’s agonistic performance. They may also be intended at modifying the results of an anti-doping test on the use of such substances or drugs ( Handelsman, 2006 ). A concrete and accurate evaluation of the prevalence of the doping phenomenon is difficult to attain. This is occasioned by the unprecedented multiplication and evolution of doping substances and methods, fear of harsh legal and sports sanctions by athletes, and lastly, the inadequate nature of the illegal substances’ identification techniques.
The most commonly used drugs by athletes are the Anabolic-androgenic steroids ( AAS ) . Anabolic steroids (AS) comprise a class of compounds that are synthesized and used in the stimulation of muscular and body growth ( Hartgens & Kuipers, 2004 ). This is often conceptualized as the anabolic effect. In some cases, steroids are used in reference to both anabolic steroids and androgens because a similar basic chemical structure characterizes both. The anabolic effect is driven by an increment in local nitrogen with an increase in newly formed proteins. It is also determined by an increase in phosphorus content, glycogen, and phosphorus compound that have high energy potential. Lastly, the anabolic effect is determined by an increase in muscle mass water content and heightened oxygen consumption on the muscular level.
The consumption of AS for therapeutic reasons is not only rare but also limited. Drugs boasting similar effects as AS are recognized by IOC as substances whose consumption is geared towards doping. In particular, AS are used in sports that require a considerable amount of muscle mass ( Hartgens & Kuipers, 2004 ). Examples include weight lifting, shot put, gymnastics, and in sports in which increased muscle mass leads to the increased potential of speed in the athlete. Such sports include high jump, American football and speed races among others. Other categories of athletes that may use AS include bodybuilders. While it may not aim at participating in competitive events, this group may be geared towards attaining a given physical appearance. Besides promoting muscular strength and growth, AS can reduce the amount of time taken to recover physically following protracted and intense physical activity. They may also be useful in stimulating a determined and aggressive attitude which is a vital requirement in sports that require physical contact with the opponents ( Hartgens & Kuipers, 2004 ). Using AS during training leads to increased body weight when coupled with an adequate diet. This is mainly in place of lean body mass. In other cases, the use of AS induces the effects obtained from muscular strength training when combined with a high-protein diet. Further, AS cannot modify the aerobic ability and power. Despite their perceived benefits, the use of AS is associated with serious cardiovascular and liver damage. It also affects the reproductive system and results in various psychological disorders even on consuming therapeutic doses. It is due to such and other effects that using AS by athletes is against the ethical principles as well as rules of sports.
Anabolic steroids not only affect the brain but are also likely to influence behavior. For instance, they may lead to aggressive behavior in some individuals. This implies that by abusing AS an individual is likely to become mean to people that he or she is kind to on a typical day. In some cases, AS users may engage in frequent fights. Such undesirable outbursts are likely to be severe in some instances as has been seen in some athletes in the past. Withdrawing from AS may lead to depression and even suicidal thoughts. This phenomenon has been linked to behavior changes which are associated with hormonal changes occasioned by the steroids ( Hartgens & Kuipers, 2004 ). Long-term use of AS is associated with memory lapses. Compared to non-users, individuals who have used AS for extended periods have exhibited low performance on visuospatial memory tasks. In real life, problems associated with visuospatial memory are associated with challenges finding particular locations such as a person's address or a specific building's location.
Anabolic steroid users are likely to report more forgetting in the context of retrospective memory, prospective memory, or challenges in their execution function. Therefore, using AS has an unprecedented detrimental impact on a person's day-to-day memory and capacity to remember ( Maravelias et al., 2005 ). Such issues are likely to affect various spheres of an athlete’s occupational, interpersonal, educational, as well as health-related life due to the importance of everyday remembering. Thus, the use of AS affects both memory and learning by negatively influencing the brain and its related cognitive functions. Anabolic steroids have been found to affect the human central nervous system ( Maravelias et al., 2005 ; Hartgens & Kuipers, 2004 ). The locations they target in the brain are closely associated with the areas that regulate sexuality, mood, and aggression. Thus, individuals who use AS for extended periods are likely to experience, during or after, mood disorders that are closely associated with such psychiatric disease categories as anxiety, depression, cognitive deterioration, and psychotic reactions.
Anabolic steroids affect the brain dopamine and serotonin neurotransmitter systems. Dopamine acts as a multi-function neurotransmitter that is used in regulating learning, appetite, mobility, emotions, and positive reinforcing effects ( Maravelias et al., 2005 ). It acts as an essential neurotransmitter that facilitates the reward system. Thus, for addiction development, dopamine has to play a role. On the other hand, Serotonin is used in regulating appetite, sleep patterns, movements, emotions, and sexuality. It also plays a crucial role in sustaining concentration and memory operations. Nandrolone, which is a notable AS, can alter the dopamine system's response to stimulating intoxicants ( Kindlundh et al., 2002; Kindlundh et al., 2001 ). The release of intoxicant-induced neurotransmitters reduces, and the same applies to the pleasure derived from the use of intoxicants. Androgenic compounds have also been seen to bear direct activating functions for both serotonin and dopamine release.
Abuse of AS in high doses is associated with impairment of numerous functions and organs hence causing psychological and physical illnesses. A significant number of these symptoms have been seen to be long-lasting even on discontinuing use of these compounds ( Maravelias et al., 2005 ). Large doses of AS have been observed to result in programmed death of cells of different cell types. Notable among these cells are the neuronal cells. This may cause irreversible changes in a person's nervous system. Further, the abuse of AS is closely associated with an increase in the use of intoxicants and psychiatric disorders. The adverse effects of AS abuse on the brain dopaminergic as well as serotonergic nervous system cannot be overstated.
My curiosity regarding this topic is driven by the fact that modern sports are characterized by the suspicions that most top athletes have resorted to doping as a way of enhancing their stellar performances. While this may be viewed as an emergent phenomenon, it is an old practice that has roots in as far back as ancient Greece. These athletes would consume special foods or magic portions in a bid to gain a competitive advantage over their opponents. The desire to dope is driven by the athletes' desire to outcompete their rivals and such incentives as the sponsorship deals and prizes that come from winning. It is also driven by such social pressures as gold medal expectations on a national level. These factors among others have ensured that there is a continuous supply of performance-enhancing drugs such as steroids. For instance, more than 192 drugs have been banned. Likewise, other performance enhancing methods are listed by WADA. This list is updated regularly with the emergence of new drugs. Despite the ban and associated adverse effects on the health of users the testers and manufacturers are continuously innovating so as to remain relevant. Likewise, these entities use sophisticated methods to manufacture these drugs. These dynamics inform my curiosity on this topic.
Doping and use of steroids in sports are on the rise. Annually, thousands of athletes globally are tested positive for various banned substances. This is true for multiple sports, with most having a track record of the use of performance-enhancing drugs. For instance, in 2018, Russia was banned from taking part in the winter games held in South Korea. This decision was aimed at punishing the nation for promoting a nation-wide doping program that was supported by the government. This raises the question of whether or not banning performance-enhancing drugs has been useful seeing that it is sometimes may be supported by governments and other entities that ought to be against the vice. On the other hand, millions of dollars in sponsorships, compensations, and endorsements are given to athletes every year. The enormous social and financial rewards of success act as incentives for the attitude of winning at all costs. This phenomenon acts as a critical driver of doping and steroid use by athletes. These dynamics inform my urge to investigate this phenomenon.
I believe that one of the core drivers of doping and the use of steroids is the pressure imposed on athletes to win. Thus, these athletes abuse steroids and other substances in a bid to enhance their performance and thus win. For instance, steroid use is high amongst competitive bodybuilder, and the same applies to various sports. Another challenge is the increased pressure on athletes to enhance their muscle size and cut down on their body fat. Further, some may have a misleading image of their body. For instance, men may believe that they look weak and small, while women are likely to think that they are flabby or fat even when the converse is true. Some of those that abuse steroids may be geared towards boosting their muscle sizes in reaction to a past sexual or physical abuse. In this case, their goal is to increase the size of their muscles as well as protect themselves. Some weightlifters, both men, and women, with a history of AS abuse have confessed to childhood sexual or physical abuse. These individuals are likely to have increased their bodybuilding activities in a bid to protect themselves from a similar attack in the future. Thus, abuse of steroids and doping is associated with numerous factors.
To solve the problem, early attempts at preventing the use of steroid should be focused on testing for drugs and educating athletes about the adverse effects of using drugs. Regarding the latter, there is a need to highlight both the benefits and risks of using AS. This may be more effective in convincing athletes about the negative effects of their actions. This approach may be more balanced as opposed to being biased. The coaches, team leaders, and the athletes need to have discussions about the impacts of drug use on the performance of their team. They should also explore alternative ways of enhancing the performance of individual athletes and the team as a whole. Examples of these alternative strategies include proper nutrition and strength training. This is because a team-centered and multi-component approach is likely to reduce doping and steroid use considerably.
In doing this project, I hope to gain a holistic understanding of the factors that influence doping and use of steroids amongst athletes. In this pursuit, there is a need to explore the positions of the athletes on the matter. Specifically, there is a need to understand the athletes' motivations in engaging in doping and the use of steroids. This information is vital in developing the response mechanism. Specifically, it is only having a comprehensive understanding of the problem that effective solutions can be developed. Further, the goal of carrying out this project is to understand the current status of doping and steroid use as well as the most affected sports. Lastly, I aim to contribute to the development of counter-strategies.
Some of the expected outcomes of carrying out this project include the development of a clear and updated understanding of the challenge of steroid use and doping. I also expect to gain cutting edge insights into the most basic motivations from the athletes' perspective. This way, the development of the most effective and appropriate response strategy is possible. Ultimately, the information obtained would find application in the development of related policies. It would also be useful in addressing the challenge at the team level.
References
Baron, D. A., Martin, D. M., & Magd, S. A. (2007). Doping in sports and its spread to at-risk populations: an international review. World Psychiatry , 6 (2), 118.
Handelsman, D. J. (2006). Testosterone: use, misuse and abuse. Medical journal of Australia , 185 (8), 436-439.
Hartgens, F., & Kuipers, H. (2004). Effects of androgenic-anabolic steroids in athletes. Sports medicine , 34 (8), 513-554.
Kindlundh, A. M., Bergström, M., Monazzam, A., Hallberg, M., Blomqvist, G., Långström, B., & Nyberg, F. (2002). Dopaminergic effects after chronic treatment with nandrolone visualized in rat brain by positron emission tomography. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry , 26 (7-8), 1303-1308.
Kindlundh, A. M., Lindblom, J., Bergström, L., Wikberg, J. E., & Nyberg, F. (2001). The anabolic ‐ androgenic steroid nandrolone decanoate affects the density of dopamine receptors in the male rat brain. European Journal of Neuroscience , 13 (2), 291-296.
Maravelias, C., Dona, A., Stefanidou, M., & Spiliopoulou, C. (2005). Adverse effects of anabolic steroids in athletes: a constant threat. Toxicology letters , 158 (3), 167-175.
Maughan, R. J., King, D. S., & Lea, T. (2004). Dietary supplements. Journal of sports sciences , 22 (1), 95-113.
Tsitsimpikou, C., Chrisostomou, N., Papalexis, P., Tsarouhas, K., Tsatsakis, A., & Jamurtas, A. (2011). The use of nutritional supplements among recreational athletes in Athens, Greece. International journal of sports nutrition and exercise metabolism , 21 (5), 377-384.
