The Kurds: Ethnic Conflict Facing the Kurds

The issue of ethnic conflict is a pervasive element that affects communities around the world. As different groups interact, their differences in ethnicity and governance are bound to contribute to the development of conflict among the affected parties. The conflict might also be influenced by the economic, religious, and social differences that are affecting the involved parties. The proper understanding of ethnic conflict can be best underlined by highlighting how a particular group is dealing with this issue. The community under consideration is the Kurds. The focus of this specific community helps to create an in-depth analysis of the different types of ethnic conflicts are affecting individuals belonging to this group. The focus will be vital in highlighting the connection that exists between different cases of ethnic conflict that continues to affect this particular group. The community holds distinctive characteristics that set them apart from the other Islamic societies in the middle-east. For instance, their dressing is quite unique especially the women’s’. Also, their language is ethnically and culturally closer to that of the Persians with separate dialect that even though they are mutually understandable, they are spread across different nations such as Turkey, Iran, Iraq Syria and Armenia. The Kurdish people also share a lot of the folk and literary legends with the aforementioned Persians. Therefore, the proposed discussion includes a critical analysis of the Kurds community and how it has faced the issues of ethnic conflict. The analysis will outline the key themes of ethnic conflict including primordialism, secession, instrumentation, proxy wars, and autonomy. Lastly, the paper attempts to provide an informed answer to the following thesis question: do the Kurds face ethnic conflicts? 

The Kurds (Background Information) 

The journal entry by Entessar, (1984), the definition and proper understanding of the Kurdish people have been a vital issue for individuals researching this particular community. The group is mostly found in the Middle East sub-region, where it is estimated to have more than 18 million members (Entessar, 1989, p 911). Kurds are categorized as Indo-Europeans, light-colored eyes, dark-blond skin, and tall. The eye color distinguishes this group from the Arabs, who have black eyes. Most of the Kurdish people can be found in Iraq, Iran, and Turkey. The latter is estimated to have about 8 million Kurds and are mostly referred to as the “mountain Turks.” Iraq is expected to have about 3 million, while Iran has approximately 5 million Kurds. The main controversy surrounding this group has been the lack of a unified explanation of the group’s origin (Fuccaro, 1997 p 560). There are multiple versions by scholars that outline the possible background of this group. One such account is the belief that the Kurds originated from Medes. The Medes was a tribal group that initially came from Central Asia and settled around the Iranian Plateau. The other version is the association of the Kurds with people living in the eastern extensions of Taurus and mountains around the Zagros area. 

The one feasible explanation of the origin of the Kurds can be seen from the archeological, historical, and anthropological information relating to this particular group of individuals. According to Jan Knappert (1993, p 67), the Kurds and the Armenians are the earliest settlers of present-day eastern Turkey. It thus explains why there is a close relationship between the language that the two groups speak. However, in from the 12th Century, the Kurds living in Tabriz were invaded by the Azerbaijanis; making most of them to move and occupy the north region. The movement, in turn, resulted in moving the Armenians to the present day Turkey. 

The Kurds as an Ethnic Group 

According to Entessar, (1984), various contentions outline possible opposition to acknowledging the Kurds as a distinct ethnic group. However, the article argues that the Kurds ought to be recognized as an ethnic group making her members entitled to the existing universal rights mostly for self-determination. The consideration of the Kurds as an ethnic group is because the members of this community have elements that are similar in a typical ethnic group. Such factors include shared ethnic awareness and principles. The existence of similarity in historical experience, religion, race, and common language all contribute to the possibility of having a developed ethnic group. All these elements are present among the Kurds, making them entitled to be recognized as an ethnic group. Nader Entessar (1989, p 86), also note that the Kurdish acculturation process in Iraq and Iran has significantly led to the introduction of new values and principles that the Kurdish population has incorporated correctly. As a group, the Kurds language is a composition of three different dialects, including the Zaza, Kurdi, and Kurmanji. 

History of Ethnic Conflict 

The Kurdish Community has often been involved in ethnic conflict amongst themselves and against other groupings. One such instance is the active role that the community played in the Iraq war by the U.S. The U.S. strategically employed tactics that ended up incorporating more Kurdish troops into being on their side in the war. The use of the Kurds was to ease the creation of a new Iraqi Constitutional, governmental, and state regimes. The changes also considered helping the Kurds to attain an essential role in the introduction of a new system in the country (Albert, 2013 p 216). Such a development was to see that the Kurdish, Shiite, and Sunni are considered in the power-sharing structure. 

The Kurds have been facing the issue of ethnic conflict even before the ethnic group profiling by the U.S. The introduction of Ba’thism is yet another historical development that outlines how the Kurds have often been victims of the ethnic conflict. This political ideology started in 1968, during the infamous “Revolution of July.” At the time, the Qasim regime was overthrown providing an opportunity for the rise of the Takriti Ba’th. Takriti adopted a new tactic of classifying the community by solidifying people into the familial party, hence leading to less use of the regional pattern that was common among the Kurdish (Knappert, 1993, p 67). The Ba’thism ideology contributed to ethnic conflict as many communities were discriminated or were stripped off the privileges they enjoyed in the past. Some of the communities that suffered from this development were the Kurds, the Shi’a, and the Iraq Communist Party (Albert, 2013, p 217). The attempt, however, led to the introduction of primordialism. The inevitable conflict was apparent with Iraqi Kurds opposing the efforts by the Takriti Ba’th to introduce a truly Iraqi national identity. 

Discussion: Analysis of Contemporary Ethnic Conflicts 

Primordialism 

Primordialism is one theme of ethical conflict that reflects or provide a proper narration of the Kurds community. Using this principle, the battle that continually faces the Kurds is assumed to be inevitable and ingrained in the society. It is only through the installation of a strong ruler that the people in a community are forced to maintain harmony. Therefore, using this theme as an analytical tool, we can assert that some of the ethnic conflicts affecting the Kurds are attributed to the primordialism. Such tensions are bound to occur spontaneously and naturally as it is the natural human condition. A good example is the war development between 1968 and 1992. The Revolution of July, a war that was carried out in two weeks saw the introduction of the Ba'athist ideologies. A clear demonstration is where Takriti Ba’th, a superior ruler can realize control and power by overpowering the Qasim. The Qasim regime appeared least potent to the new rule. Hence the stronger leader ascended to power. 

However, this primordialism had grave consequences on the Kurdish community. The ethical conflict marked the removal of the regional party, in which Kurdish leaders were active members. The new era was all about the introduction of a ruling party that was controlled by selected noble families. Nature is characterized by the ability to change and possibly oversee the introduction of new policies and ways of life. Therefore, as indicated the main point of primordialism, Takriti was then replaced by a more powerful leader, Sadam Hussein (Albert, 2013 p 216). The natural occurrence of conflicts and resolutions led to the adjustment to the familial party policy and Saddam Hussein now instilled control of the party. The power was channeled and shared by few dedicated and loyal family in Iraq. All these development meant that the Kurds continued to suffer from ethical conflict. Kurds alongside Shi’a and the Communist Party continued to experience significant discrimination as the leaders only focused on empowering their loyal families rather than promoting the welfare of the Iraqis. 

Primordialism can also be closely associated with the theme of autonomy. It is seen when a particular group attempts to realize self-rule and independence, only to end up becoming victims of a powerful ruler. This ethical conflict has been part of the conflicts and atrocities that are affecting the Kurds. Primordialism is evident during the 1970s attack that Saddam Hussein organized to prevent the Kurds from realizing autonomy. During this period, the Kurds opposed much of the policies and practices conducted by Saddam. The impact was the start of the ethnic conflict that affected most of the people from this particular ethnical group. The rebellion of Saddam rule by the Kurdish people prompted the development of ethnic cleansing. The imposed hard and vigorous policies led to the removal of many Kurdish homes and villages, especially those that were located near Iran and Turkey border regions. The development led to the dismissal of over 200,000 people by 1978. In some cases, soldiers applied phosphorous, napalm, and chemical weapon to discourage people from holding campaign rallies. An example of such attack was on 16th March 1988, when about 5,000 Kurdish people were decimated. The attack was targeted to destroy the Kurdish city of Halabja as a way of ensuring that Saddam Hussein continued to control the country and its people. Such an act can be described as primordialism, as the ruler overpowered the opposition in an ethnic conflict (Albert, 2013, p 219). 

Autonomy 

The second theme of ethnic conflict that can be applied in the analysis of the Kurds is the issue of autonomy. Different groups including those established on ethnic grounds often try to assert or attain self-rule. They thus develop corporatist and convocational arrangements that would oversee the benefits and proper recognition of a particular group — the attempt to realize self-governance results into conflict, especially when the ruler is unwilling to surrender control. The ethnic conflict faced by the Kurds as they attempt to attain autonomy is well documented in the article by Albert (2013). The article cites multiple examples of the conflicts and wars that occurred as Kurds sought to attain self-rule and recognition in Iraq. 

A good example is a war against the Kurds by Saddam Hussein. Saddam aimed at opposing the attempt by this ethnic group, as attaining autonomy by the Kurds will symbolize a decline of the unified Iraqi community. The ruler advocated the use of localized and state terrorism that resulted in multiple people suffering, dying, and property destruction. The constant opposition by the Kurds against the ruling party resulted in more conflict and crackdown against the group. The crackdown was aimed at reducing the influence and activities that were conducted by the Kurdish people. One such anti-Kurdish move was the 1987 scorched earth policy. The new system led to an active campaign and open humiliation and discouragement of the Kurdish community. In six months, more than 500 villages were set ablaze, and scores of Kurdish people were executed in mass executions by the soldiers (Albert, 2013, p 219). The surviving individuals were displaced and taken into areas that were under strict control of Saddam. The attempt to attain autonomy resulted in many seeking refuge in Iran and Turkey. 

The attack against the Kurds was a strategic move that would see Saddam avoid power ouster. The proximity of most Kurds’ villages to the Iran and Turkey posed a threat that the neighboring nations would aid this ethnic group to attain self-governance and a new identity among the Iraqis (Albert, 2013, p 227). The tension between Iran and Iraq was evident even before the 1987 ethnical cleansing. Leadership in Iran advocated for the realization of full rule and governance of the Kurds. Such a stance encouraged Kurds to start a war and constant opposition of the existing law in Iraq. According to Barzani, a Kurdish leader, the constant rebellion was the only way that the community would eventually realize autonomy. The move would also ensure that the Kurds were able to enjoy guaranteed rights, recognition, and participate in different democratic processes. 

Secession 

Ethnic conflict can also be in the form of secession. This theme is similar to the issue of autonomy whereby the attempts to gain self-rule and identical identity is met with significant opposition. The process of attaining independence or just getting the declaration of independence mostly affects what is happening in a particular region and tribe. In the most occasion, the group that is attaining to achieve such status end up facing multiple challenges that often limit her effort. The continued hardship in a secession attempt explains the possible development of ethnic conflict. The critical analysis of the different situation by the Kurds present a detailed illustration of how secession attempts often contribute to the possibility of ethnic conflicts. 

An excellent account of an attempt to secede is presented by Entessar (1984). The article cites that there multiple attempts that have occurred as leaders try to attain independence for the Kurdish community. However, such a move is often met with harsh opposition that hurts this particular community. A perfect example is the political development during the Barzani era. Barzani used his influence to punish some elements in the Kurdish tribes, especially the Bardot. However, this ethnic profiling motivated some prominent Kurdish leaders who realized that it was time for the community to secede from the central government. One such leader was Mullah Mustafa who sought control of the Kurdish Democratic Party. He was the Kurds most charismatic and inspirational leader, he returned to Iraq with great pomp from many years of exile in the then Soviet Union after the fall of Mahabad in 1946 (Entessar 1984, p 88). Barzani was the leader of the independent Barzani tribe of mountainous northern Iraqi Kurdistan. Upon his return to Baghdad, the Iraqi leader Abdul Karim Qassem, who deposed the monarchy via a military coup in 1958, attempted to co-opt Barzani into giving support to the Iraqi government and into making peace. The move would ensure that the leader advocated for the autonomy of the Kurds in Iraq. Mustafa was in pole position to ensure a successful secession process as he already had experience of how strict the regime was in Iraq. His political gain came at a time when he had returned from the Soviet Union where he had been sent to exile. However, the attempt to advocate for autonomy led to conflict as Qassem, Iraq leader, deemed this proposition as unacceptable. The implication of this was the creation of a poor relationship between Qassem and Mustafa. 

Secession attempt can also be seen during the Barzani era. The defeat of Qassem by Ba’athist enemies marked the rise of oppression and struggles for secession. Barzani strategically avoided the looming conflict by offering a truce with the Kurdish community. The effort did not fully address the issue facing the community as the 1964 Constitution failed to acknowledge the autonomy of the Kurds. The Iraqi Constitution also did not fully recognize the existence truce between Arabs and the Kurds. In general, it indicated that each group was purely on their own, thus encouraging rising tension among the people. The failure to encourage this development created ethnic conflict between the Kurds and Arabs. However, it is the Kurdish community that suffered much oppression as the Iraqi government continued to impose strict rules and punishment against any form of secession attempt. 

Proxy wars 

Proxy wars can also influence ethnic conflict. These are the type of warfare whereby other communities or powers start or instigate a war that they do not participate fully get involved. Different conflict in the Kurds community is often attributed to other groups who support the attempt by this group to attain autonomy and successful secession from Iraq. Most of these powers are foreign countries that are a proponent of an empowered Kurds community. Proxy wars often result in the people of a particular group being exploited at the expense of the people or community who instigates the war. A perfect example is present in the article by Craig Douglas Albert. In the article, Albert (2013, p 220) notes how the United States instigated the war in Iraq only to end up recruiting more Kurds and empowering them to oppose the existing political regime. Most of the leaders from the U.S. believed that incorporating Iraq’s Kurdish community; the U.S. would have a better chance of overpowering the lousy regime of Saddam Hussein. The Kurds would be an added advantage to the U.S. military strategy. The empowering of such a group was to ensure that as the Americans wind up the regime change in the country, this community would provide the needed support and leadership. The active participation of the Kurds was to see that a new government was formed correctly and all the essential communities were considered as a way of enhancing harmony and growth of the state after the war. The Kurd's role in the war by the U.S. shows how proxy wars is a crucial theme in ethnic conflict. The Kurds were strategically involved in the warfare and eventually in the creation of a new state. The new regime provided recognition of key ethnical groups such as the Kurdish, Shiite, and the Sunni. The power-sharing structure proved a feasible option that would end the inhumane treatment of some tribes in Iraq. 

Ethnic nationalism 

The case study of Kurds is a perfect illustration of the theme of ethnic nationalism. Ethno-nationalism can be a result of ethical conflicts as members of a particular tribe often decide to impose control or create influence on a singular identity that is a true reflection of a specific ethnicity. Such attempt prompt hostility as other groups might oppose the move and in the same context attempt to impose their identity in the same area. This theme can also be likened to secession and autonomy as all of them aim at empowering one ethnic group regardless of the cost. The Kurds in Turkey, Iran, and Iraq have all made attempts that would oversee the creation of ethnic nationalism. According to George Harris (1997, p 113), Turkey is an excellent example of a state that has promoted ethnic nationalism. In this state, the Kurds have been recognized and acknowledged for their separate and unique identity. This ethnic nationalism is worth noting given that the Arabs mostly dominate Turkey. 

The attempt to attain ethnic nationalism in Iraqi has been a source of more conflict as the Kurds face opposition from the government and other tribes. According to Entessar (1984, p 98), some critical events show how the community tried to attain ethnic nationalism. One such event was during the 1880 revolt. During the time, the leader of Hakari Province, Sheikh Ubaydollah faced rebellion from the Kurds. The rebellion was to counter the influence of the Ottoman Empire and possibly influence marked the Kurdish uprising that would see the society recognizing the Kurds as a singular identity. A critical step towards ethnic nationalism was in 1919-22 when the Kurds in a west tier of Turkey and Iran attained semi-autonomous. The achievement was influenced by the Kurdish leader, Ismail Agha Simko. The other important date was in 1920 where the Kurdish leaders alongside the representatives of the Ottoman Sultan signed the Treaty of Sevres. The signed document would see the introduction of an independent Kurdistan state. However, since then, the ethnic nationalism of the Kurds remains elusive. Leaders in Iraq, Turkey, and Iran have often failed to recognize the autonomy of this particular group fully. The result of this has been the active opposition of the existing regimes by the Kurds thus resulting in ethnic conflict. 

Instrumentalism 

As the name dictates, instrumentalism is a philosophical approach where it indicates the education, law, or science that is employed in a practical setting. About ethnic dynamics, instrumentalism can be said to be an instrument that most leaders in an ethnic community use as a tool to attain other goals. Instrumentalism can be a source of ethnic conflict, especially when one group focusses on its unique attributes to create division in the community. The Kurds case study provide a different setting that outlines the possible setbacks arising from instrumentalism. The case study by Entessar (1984), illustrates how instrumentalism can be lead to a significant setback since it encourages the introduction of ethnic tension. Leaders have often incorporated the acknowledgment of diversity as a critical element in promoting peaceful coexistence and development among the people. According to a critical analysis of the Kurds, instrumentalism can be seen as a tool for avoiding conflicts and at the same time promoting enhanced development. 

Qassem is a perfect example of a leader that has appropriately and effectively applied the use of instrumentalism among the Kurdish community. Qassem acknowledged the equal representation and participation of the Kurds and the Arabs as indicated in the 1958 Iraqi Constitution. The considerate stand by Qassem can be said to be influenced by the fact that his mother was a Shi’a Kurd. His accession to power marked a favorable time for the Kurdish community as many of the individuals were accorded prominent positions in the government. As indicated in the issue of instrumentalism, the new development marked the use of ethnic identity as a tool to foster harmony and progress. According to Entessar (1984, p 91), the ethnical tolerance of both the Arabs and the Kurds was a good strategy and an element of peace. As a show of understanding, Qassem allowed Mullah Mustafa Barzani to return to the country after being in the Soviet Union. Mustafa was accorded a hero’s welcome. However, the proposal by Mustafa to encourage secession broke the relationship between the two resulting in conflict and oppression of the Kurds. However, the Qassem regime continued to allow cultural and political practices of the Kurds; ensured that the state avoided the onset of proxy wars by the Arab nationalists and Ba’athists. Therefore, the discussion on ethnic conflict cannot be complete with analyzing the appropriate instrument that can be used; in this case study, instrumentalism of the Kurds proves critical in promoting peace and avoiding proxy wars. 

Effects of Ethnic Conflict on Interaction 

The ethnic conflict facing the Kurds reveals the likely impact, especially on how this community interacts with others in the community. The ethnic conflict can be blamed solely for the failure to establish a Kurdish state. Despite the multiple efforts by the Kurds, including revolting and seeking secession, the rising ethnical conflict such as the ethnical cleansing can be blamed for the inferior status of this community. According to an article by George Harris (1997), despite being regarded as the doughty mountain warriors, the real ethnic conflict proves a deterrent for this community in creating a national movement. 

Ethnic conflict especially warfare has impacted the community way of interacting among its members and those from other groups (Fitch, 2009, p 24). A good example is the development of political disunity among the Kurds. Such a development arises from a lack of influential leaders and the constant opposition and rivalry among the Kurds. The community continues to lack a unified language that could easily be used in mobilizing people and resources across the country. Most of the Kurds speak the Zaza, Kurdi, and Kurmanji. The latter is further divided into the following sub-dialects, Zil and Mil. 

The lack of a unified force as a result of ethnic tension is seen in religious behavior. The community is divided into multiple groupings with the leading religious division being the Sunnis of the Islamic religion. There are other who mostly focus on the dervish brotherhoods such as the Kadiris and Nakshbandis (Fitch, 2009, p 25). Others have even gone to join different sects including the Ali Ilahis and the Nurcular. The religious differences create a further and deeper differences between the Kurds and others in the community. It also explains why the community suffered since they lack a unified front to face the oppressors. 

The other effect of ethnic conflict is the imposition of more strict measures that would discourage the Kurds from seeking alternative solutions to their issue. A perfect illustration is discussed by George Harris (1997). According to Harris (1997, p 115), any attempt by the Kurds to attain self-rule or create a unified movement was met with harsh consequences. One of the critical development was the hindrance of free interaction of the Kurds amongst themselves and with other tribes in the community. An excellent example of such a case was in 1919 when Mustafa Ataturk encouraged his soldiers to use excessive force to end the insurgent effort by the separatist movement separated by the Kurds. 

Conclusion 

The discussion attempts to provide an answer to the proposed thesis question; do the Kurds face ethnic conflicts? It is apparent that communities across the world continue to face an ethnic conflict that often hinders social, economic, and political development. The focus was on the Kurds community as it presents a perfect platform to understand more the issue of ethnic conflict. Over the years, the Kurds have been used - and abused - by the leadership in power on either side of the Iraq/Iran border. Saddam Hussein was by no means the first to do so. At various times, Reza Shah of Iran, Saddam's Baathist Party in Iraq and the Ayatollah Khomeini of Iran have used the Kurds as a buffer between Persian and Arab Iraqi interests. Quite often they have served as troops (proxies) for one side or the other and as allies of convenience. The community has around 19 million people with most of them living in the Middle East. The members can be said to be an ethnic group since the members share distinct similarities. According to records, the community has often faced different forms of ethnic conflict. The analysis was divided according to major themes relating to the issue of ethnic conflict. These themes include primordialism, autonomy, proxy wars, ethnic nationalism, secession, and instrumentalism. The analysis using these elements indicates that indeed the Kurds have often suffered from ethnic conflict. A good example is the oppression of the Kurds during the Saddam Hussein regime. During the time, there was ethnic cleansing that destroyed Kurdish villages. Lastly, the analysis reveals that ethnic conflict has resulted in reduced development and empowerment of the Kurds. 

References 

Albert, C. D. (2013). A history of violence: Ethnic group identity and the Iraqi Kurds.  Iran and the Caucasus ,  17 (2), 215-234. 

Entessar, N. (1984). The Kurds in post ‐ revolutionary Iran and Iraq.  Third World Quarterly ,  6 (4), 911-933. 

Entessar, N. (1989). The Kurdish mosaic of discord.  Third World Quarterly ,  11 (4), 83-100. 

Fitch, A. (2009). KURDS: A marginalised and criminalised people.  Socialist Lawyer , (53), 24-25. 

Fuccaro, N. (1997). Ethnicity, state formation, and conscription in postcolonial Iraq: The case of the Yazidi Kurds of Jabal Sinjar.  International Journal of Middle East Studies ,  29 (4), 559-580. 

Harris, G. S. (1977). Ethnic Conflict and the Kurds.  The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science ,  433 (1), 112-124. 

Knappert, J. (1993). THE KURDS: A BRIEF HISTORY.  International Journal on World Peace ,  10 (2), 67-70.