The Nature of Knowing

Components of Research

The scientific method is a systematic model of conducting research which scientists employ in answering a study problem or in finding solutions to empirical questions. According to Dawson (2019), the scientific method is composed of six major components. The first component of the scientific method is observation and question/purpose. Observation involves using background information concerning the tenets to be tested. Observation enhances the prediction and understanding of a forthcoming outcome. The question/purpose indicates what a scientists intends to learn. A researcher should be able to derive the empirical question through experience or observation ( Dawson, 2019) . In a research report, the question is the phenomenon being tested or in other words, what the scientific experiment is attempting to answer. An example of a question that an experiment may ask is; what is the effect of google glasses on individuals with autism spectrum disorder? Hypothesis is the second component of a scientific method. The section is a prediction of the answer to the research problem. As.. Kumar (2019). explain, hypothesis is an educated prediction of a research outcome stated in a complete sentence. A researcher relies on observations made to craft an educated assertion. An example of a hypothesis in a research report would be; use of google glasses aids in the brain development of children with autism spectrum disorder. 

A researcher is required to decide if the hypothesis will be accepted or rejected at the end of the scientific experiment. Methodology/methods is the third component of a scientific method. T he section cogently explains how the research problem was studied. While writing a research report, the methodology section should include subsections such as statistical technique utilized, procedures employed, materials used, data collection methods and sources as well as experimental details ( Walliman, 2017) . A researcher can use tables, maps or flow charts to aid in clarity or brevity. In summary, the research methodology addresses the steps/procedures followed in investigating the study problem. Results is the fourth component of a scientific method. The segment records and explains actual findings of the experiment. In a research report, the results section should use figures and tables to describe and interpret derived information. The visual aids are vital in identifying relationships and trends. 

The sixth component in a scientific method is analysis and discussion. The segment dwells on the importance of research findings regarding the overall study aims. A researcher ought to synthesize knowledge learned about the study problem and its overall meaning. A researcher interprets the results received and gives logical explanations of data collected. The discussion should be based on what is found. In summary, discussion component explores significance of the research ( Walliman, 2017) . Conclusion is the last component that restates the key question or the study objectives and summarizes research findings using concise and clear statements. The drawn conclusion decides whether to reject of accept the formulated hypothesis made at the beginning of the experiment. In a research report, the conclusion should detail how the project can be extended for further study. 

The ‘how we know’ concept relates to the whether an empirical claim or contingent statement is true or false. It describes the certainty of results from a scientific method. The concept is used in asserting that certain statements or claims in the world are true while others false. 

Sources of Information

A primary source is a direct description of an occurrence by a person who witnessed or observed the happening firsthand. It is the description of a phenomenon by a researcher or immediate firsthand account of a topic from a person who has had a direct connection with it. Examples of primary sources of information are speeches, oral histories, government publications and manuscript materials. Secondary sources are publications authored by people who are not the direct participants or observers in the events described. According to Brannen (2017), they are also sources about an event in history that was authored/published after that period has passed. Examples of secondary sources include magazines, textbooks, book reviews, encyclopedias and commentaries. 

The concept of suspending trust relates to the trustworthiness in research. Additionally, it describes the questioning of validity and reliability of a research report. It implies the evaluation of whether findings of a research are dependable, confirmable, credible and transferable ( Walliman, 2017) . The concept involves subjection of a research study to tests of reliability and validity to determine if the findings are accurate. 

The Use and Misuse of Information

Authority and credibility

The parameter seeks to determine who the author is and qualifications of the publisher. Credentials of the author are assessed based on experience, education background and subject matter expertise. The publisher is also evaluated on if the publication is scholarly in nature. The research study might have not satisfied the authority and credibility threshold leading to its retraction. 

Accuracy and reliability

The above parameter assesses whether information on the study were well researched. Additional evaluations checks if the publication included facts or statistical data and if data collected was gathered using original research methods such as surveys. The parameter determines if the author had made a disclosure of the reliability and validity of data ( Taherdoost, 2016) . The research study may be been found to be unreliable ultimately prompting its cancellation. 

Currency and timeliness

It is a parameter that assesses a publication based on the exact time when the research study was published. The publication date ought to be verifiable ( Brannen, 2017) . The parameter checks if current information was required and if historical information is acceptable. 

Objectivity or bias

The research study is evaluated on whether the publication contains opinions or facts and if the information presented is subjective or objective. The determination that the research study is laden with myriad subjective information led to retraction of the study for allegations of inaccuracy and misuse. 

Established Tools for Measurement

Measurement instruments in research are scales used to quantify or collect data on a variety of variables for example interviews, observations, questionnaires, focus groups and servers. As Walliman (2017) explain, it is a structured tool utilized in gathering primary data. The questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions handed to respondents to record answers in a statistical study. The instrument can either be closed ended where respondents are given a set of choices or alternatives to select the most appropriate or open ended where subjects can answer questions in whatever manner they deem fit ( Shannon-Baker, 2016) . Questionnaires are primarily used as a mechanism of soliciting information or opinion from respondents. The instrument also measures the behaviour, intentions, preferences and attitudes of larger number of research subjects.

Types of research paradigms

The two main paradigms in education research are positivist and interpretivist. The positivist paradigm defines a world view based on what is already known in research methods as the scientific mode of investigation ( Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017) . The paradigm in its pure form adopts a systematic experimentation method for exploration of methods and in answering of questions. The method investigates the cause and effect relationships of various phenomena in nature. As Ryan (2018) explain, the positivist approach utilizes deductive logic, formulation and testing of hypothesis, calculation, extrapolations and formation of conclusions. For example, in the positivist approach, a researcher will use instruments of measurement such as questionnaire, interviews or observation to collect data and analyze it to get quantifiable outcomes ( Nicotera, 2017) . Contrary, the interpretivist paradigm seeks to gain a comprehension of the subjective world of human encounters. The method intends to understand and interpret a person’s thoughts. The approach attempts to gain an understanding from the viewpoint of the subject under observation. In the interpretivist paradigm, reality has a socially constructed dimension. Examples of interpretivist paradigm is the belief that causes and effects have mutual independence ( Rahi, 2017) . A qualitative scenario describe a future while using narrative texts or story lines. A quantitative scenario on the other hand utilizes figures, numerical data and tables generated through sophisticated statistical models. 

References

Brannen, J. (2017).  Mixing methods: Qualitative and quantitative research . Routledge.

Dawson, C. (2019).  Introduction to Research Methods 5th Edition: A Practical Guide for Anyone Undertaking a Research Project . Robinson.

Kivunja, C., & Kuyini, A. B. (2017). Understanding and applying research paradigms in educational contexts.  International Journal of Higher Education ,  6 (5), 26-41.

Kumar, R. (2019).  Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners . Sage Publications Limited.

Nicotera, A. M. (2017). Paradigms.  The International Encyclopedia of Organizational Communication , 1-14.

Rahi, S. (2017). Research design and methods: A systematic review of research paradigms, sampling issues and instruments development.  International Journal of Economics & Management Sciences ,  6 (2), 1-5.

Ryan, G. (2018). Introduction to positivism, interpretivism and critical theory.  Nurse researcher ,  25 (4), 41-49.

Shannon-Baker, P. (2016). Making paradigms meaningful in mixed methods research.  Journal of mixed methods research ,  10 (4), 319-334.

Taherdoost, H. (2016). Validity and reliability of the research instrument; how to test the validation of a questionnaire/survey in a research.  How to Test the Validation of a Questionnaire/Survey in a Research (August 10, 2016) .

Walliman, N. (2017).  Research methods: The basics . Routledge.