Neo-Confucian Renovation refers to the revival and expansion of the core practice of Confucianism. In Lecture 6, Professor Magagna explores the topic of Neo-Confucian Renovation and the factors that contributed towards it. Neo-Confucian Renovation was a response to commercialization, enhanced strategic threat, and Buddhism. Neo-Confucian Renovation is made up of the four Rs including rededication to the service, reconstitution of power, rationalization of service, and re-grounding of reality. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to explore the four Rs of Neo-Confucian Renovation in detail.
Neo-Confucianism is the revival of the Confucian philosophy that began in the 9th century. In Lecture 6, Magagna compares Neo-Confucianism with protestant reform. Protestant reform was meant to revitalize Christianity like Neo-Confucianism, which is an attempt to renovate it. The revival of Confucianism saw the widespread adoption of the philosophy by political theorists, government civil servants, reformers, and historians. Neo-Confucianism was championed by masters who became teachers of the various forms of Confucian teachings. The masters encouraged a unified vision of humaneness and self-cultivation among individuals. Neo-Confucianism became an international movement gaining popularity in East Asian countries, including China, Korea, and Japan (Magagna, 2019). Philosophers such as Tu-Wei Ming continue to champion the Neo-Confucian movement in modern society. Aforementioned, neo-Confucianism renovation is made up of the four R’s of Renovation. Each component of the Renovation is important to neo-Confucianism.
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Rededication to Service
In lecture 6, Professor Magagna states that one of the main challenges of the Neo-Confucian Renovation was the rededication to the public service. Rededication to the public service was motivated by the desire to prove personal salvation to others. By rededicating the elite to the service, the public was assured that the leaders had their interests at heart. The elite in leadership positions had to rededicate themselves to service to remain adaptive. Adaptive elites can be leaders for strong families, thriving businesses, or the local government. However, the elites must pass the civil examination tests used to create local services elite. The elites enjoyed social mobility in society, where they can be involved in the social, economic, and political aspects of society. The civil examination was done in levels, and the individual must pass the first level to proceed to the next one. The exam was also open to everyone, including the poor, rich, young, and old members of the society.
Zhun Xi, the neo-Confucian canon wrote the texts which were used to guide the civil service exams. The texts were modified versions of Confucian classics and Buddhist ideas on how rulers should live and govern a Neo-Confucian society. Zhun Xi wrote four books focusing on a different topic on civil service examination. He defined the civil service examination as a way of acquiring political power through learning and examination. The examinations were made of Confucian classics. The tests were difficult, and individuals would study for years to prepare for the examination. The main point of the civil-service examination was to bring back the intellectuals in the government rather than military leaders. The exams also brought a diverse pool of leaders dedicated to continuous learning.
According to Magagna (2019), the civil service examination represented, “the high principles” of a dedicated man. The political leaders dedicated themselves to service through continuous learning of Confucian classics, Buddhist ideas, and ideas from other philosophers. Zhu Xi’s books focused on different topics with the first book focusing on Chinese philosophy and political thinking. According to Xi, the book introduced leaders to Neo-Confucianism. The second book focused on “the way” or balance, which is about developing a sense of right and wrong. The third book is The Analects, which encouraged the ideas of virtue, ritual, and piety among leaders. The Analects emphasize on devotion to learning as it is the only way leaders can create a harmonious society. Lastly, the final book is a collection of Mencius’ conversations with Confucius. Mencius argued that all human beings are born good, and they are inclined to do the right thing when they nurture that instinct. The four books on civil service examination replaced the Confucian classics as they laid down specific steps to guide the examination process. Only individuals who passed the three levels of the examination would join the local government.
The rededication to service produced leaders dedicated to a wide range of services, from welfare to warfare. The leaders had all the skills to run a successful government in all facets. Neo-Confucianism led to the rise of meritocracy, a system where everyone had the chance to be in government regardless of their social status and background. Meritocracy is a system of governance evaluates individuals on the basis of their talents and abilities. The Chinese dynasties were known for their hereditary succession, as well as the civil service positions such as the magistrates and governors. Civil examination encouraged the new system of meritocracy, where individuals only qualified for civil service posts after studying Confucian texts. The system was introduced for the first time in the Sui Dynasty, and it lasted many dynasties. The system of imperial examinations has been revised over the years.
As part of the rededication to service, leaders were encouraged to work together. With the meritocracy in place, leaders had unique abilities and skills, and by working together, they would be able to address some of the crucial issues affecting the citizens. According to Neo-Confucians, the government institutions operate on two levels, the socio-political and personal. The socio-political level is concerned with the practicalities of the larger state while the personal level is concerned with individual moral character. The operations of the two levels often intertwined; thus, leaders must cooperate.
Reconstitution of Power
Reconstitution of power as the second attribute of the neo-Confucian Renovation is about the decentralization of power. Neo-Confucianism limited the power of the rulers through decentralization as seen in the three levels of government. Neo-Confucianism rejected the imperial system of government for a decentralized government with shared roles. A decentralized government made it possible to oversee all the activities in the massive state while maintaining social order. Northern Song leaders promulgated the civil examination system to limit the development of military and aristocratic power centers to attract the sons of the elite to their newly formed government. The government put in place bureaucratic channels for selecting the officials responsible for all the three levels of government. Individuals who passed all the civil service examinations were in positions of higher ranking in the decentralized government.
The lower level of government played a supportive role to the state government. The local government was responsible for functions such as agriculture and trade among the local people, whereas the state was still in charge of security. The emperors were no longer involved in the day-to-day affairs of the state, and this vacuum was filled by gentry’s officials. The gentry officials were either under the upper or the lower gentry, and they had privileges. The three levels of government served its purpose. The officials in each level were selected on the basis of their moral qualities and the civil examination. The social order placed the scholars at the top of the pyramid. The education system/academies were part of the political system. The state educational network was used to teach and preserve Confucian values.
The civil service examination was conducted for every level of the Chinese administrative hierarchy. The county-level was the lowest level, and one took the preliminary examination that qualified him for the second level of examination. The second level exam was taken at the prefectoral (district) level, and the third level civil service examination was taken at the provincial capital. The fourth level is the highest level of the exam given at the imperial place. Individuals who passed the highest level ( jinshi ) became the most important people of the Chinese Bureaucracy. The provincial-level ( juren ) joined the provincial-level elite and were often called to government service. Individuals who passed the prefectoral-level ( xiucal ) examination became leaders in their villages and towns. They also became school teachers.
The revival of Confucian learning led to the opening of private academies. The private academies were created to achieve what that government schools failed to achieve with regards to Confucianism. The private schools were used to legitimize the sociopolitical order. It was used to socialize young males on Neo-Confucian values. Private academies served as centers for Confucian learning, and they often formed an organization with other private schools in the region where they held regular meetings to discuss political, educational, and cultural issues. The local officials occupying lower to middle positions of the decentralized government were patrons to the private academies. Private academies became the meeting point for Confucian scholars across the country.
Rationalization of Philosophy
Neo-Confucian Renovation also involved the rationalization of philosophy. Neo-Confucianism is an interaction of Confucianism with Daoist and Buddhist traditions. Neo-Confucianism was characterized by the simplification of classical Confucian teachings, particularly the Analects. Neo-Confucians selected core texts and interpreted classical Confucian texts making it easy for all individuals. Zhu Xi is considered the greatest synthesizer of the Neo-Confucian thought. Individuals who spend years learning about the core texts of Confucianism later wrote simpler Neo-Confucian books in prose that were easy to understand and implement.
The four Books by Zhun Xi became the basis of Neo-Confucianism and civil service examination. The four books had the greatest Confucianism concepts that made it easy to standardize learning and civil service examination. Zhun Xi focused on core Confucian concepts with commentary as well as Buddhist and Daoism ideas. Xi wrote the four books all his life as he took time to understand and synthesize the Confucian concepts. The first book titled Great Learning is an introduction to the world of Neo-Confucianism. The four books quickly replaced the old classics and made it possible to standardize the civil service examination.
Alternatively, the systematization of the society using Li and the Four Noble truths. When Zhu Xi wrote the four-book, he added that the way of heaven is expressed in li (principle). Li is pure and perfect, and it is imperative for individuals to purify their Li . The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism are Dukka, Samudaya, Nirodha, and Magga . Dukka states that suffering exists and it is universal. Different forms of sufferings include sickness, failure, and loss, among others. The second noble truth of Samudaya states that there is a cause for suffering. Common causes such as the desire to have certain things, desire for fame, desire to avoid unpleasant sensations such as fear and anger. The third truth (Nirodha) states that there is an end to suffering, which is achieved at Nirvana when the mind lets go of all desires. The last principle of Magga states that to end suffering, one must follow the Eightfold path. Buddhism blames selfish desire as the root cause of suffering, something that Neo-Confucians agree with. When leaders chase after their selfish desires, they bring suffering to themselves and to society. Neo-Confucians incorporated li and the four noble truths to the political system.
Regrounding of Reality
Neo-Confucianism was characterized by three forms of reality cosmic, social, and self. Cosmic reality is concerned with moral order and ethical judgments. Cosmic reality is the principle that the salvation of humanity is not dependent on a supernatural force, but man’s determination and actual effort. According to early Confucianism, a human being is born a social being with the moral sense of ren, yi, li, and zhi. Ren is the foundational virtue in Confucianism. Ren is humanness, and it should transcend all human relations.
Since Neo-Confucianism borrows from Buddhism as seen in the concept of li a nd qi. Li refers to the patterned order in the universe. Li is a principle used to integrate Buddhism with Neo Confucianism. Li borrows from the principle of transcendence that human beings are connected to other organic and inorganic things in the universe. Buddhism and Neo Confucianism share the principle that governs the cosmos. Individuals can achieve self-cultivation and spiritual unity with the heavens. The triad is an interconnection of heaven, earth, and human beings. Human beings engage in transformative activities that deepen their linkage with the triad.
Neo Confucianism defines social relations (reality) on all levels of society. Social reality should be conceived in terms of happiness or satisfaction, but the peaceful integration of individuals into a collective whole. When individuals engage in self-cultivation, they are more likely to coexist with each other peacefully mirroring the harmony of the natural order.
Neo-Confucians believed in an interrelated universe, but they focused on the concept of self-being more than the existence of a God or other supernatural beings. The great chain of being is a continual process of transformation connecting inorganic, organic, and human life forms. All the elements in the universe are linked by ch’i, which is the basis for reciprocity between human beings and the natural world.
Self-reality or the idea of self-cultivation is about nurturing seeds of virtue within. Human beings engage in ongoing transformation guided by the four moral values of the Heaven and Earth of humanness, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom. Self-cultivation is about cultivating goodness, and it can be achieved through education and upholding rituals. Neo Confucianism entails a series of complex cosmological, hermeneutic, and political theories that promote human flourishing. Self-cultivation is about the development of mind and heart using Confucian philosophies.
References
Magagna, V. (2019). 113A: Political Science [Lecture 6 Notes]
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