The 21 st century is characterized by numerous unexpected disasters that leave thousands dead and millions psychologically affected. Besides, these disasters, which may be either natural or man-made, lead to massive destruction of properties, and subsequently cause serious economic degradation. Urban migration increases population density in urban areas; hence increasing the risk of disaster outbreaks due to political unrest and social disorganization (Nojavan, Salehi, & Omidvar, 2018). The risk of disaster outbreaks is projected to be higher by 2050 as 80% of the world population is expected to migrate to urban centers (Nojavan, Salehi, & Omidvar, 2018). Therefore, there is the need to device better disaster management practices that are critical for disaster prevention and laying effective strategies for mitigating the disasters when they happen.
One applicable strategy for disaster management is through understanding the psychological phases of disaster response and how these phases are uniquely experienced by affected individuals and community. There are five commonly accepted psychological phases of disaster responses; the pre-disaster phase, the hero phase, the honeymoon phase, the disillusionment phase, and the reconstruction phase (SAMHSA, 2018). The pre-disaster phase is accompanied by fear and uncertainty (SAMHSA, 2018). If a disaster occurs without a warning, the victims experience feelings of vulnerability and lack of security (SAMHSA, 2018). Such victims are left with the fear of future occurrences of unpredicted tragedies and may loss their ability to offer security to both themselves and their families (SAMHSA, 2018). Disasters which occur with a warning, on the other hand, cause guilt to the victims for failing to heed the warning (SAMHSA, 2018). The pre-disaster phase may take a short time, as in the case of terrorist attack, or take long, as in the case of hurricane season.
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The hero phase has the characteristics of high-level activity and reduced level of productivity (SAMHSA, 2018). The victims going through the hero phase experience a sense of altruism and adrenaline-induced rescue behavior, and subsequently impair the risk assessment strategy (SAMHSA, 2018). The honeymoon phase, on the other hand, is characterized by an emotional dramatic shift (SAMHSA, 2018). Other characteristics of the honeymoon phase are availability of disaster assistance, occurrence of community bending, and hope for quick disaster recovery. The honeymoon phase ends within a few weeks.
The disillusionment phase occurs as a contrast to the honeymoon phase (SAMHSA, 2018). This happens when the community eventually realizes that their assistance to the victims of the disaster is limited. Consequently, the community enters a state of discouragement and despair. Finally, the community abandons the victims and returns to their usual businesses. However, the community remains ready to offer any assistance within their capability. The disillusionment phase may take years and may become part of the national events, such as the anniversary of the disaster. The reconstruction phase usually comes with overall feelings of recovery (SAMHSA, 2018). During the reconstruction phase, both individuals and the community embark on rebuilding their lives, and eventually adjust to their normal lives, though still with fading memories of losses. The reconstruction phase may take several years, depending on the nature of the catastrophic events.
Hurricane Katrina is the best example of the disasters that have ever been experienced in the United States. According to Zimmermann (2015), Hurricane Katrina, which occurred at the Gulf and in New Orleans in the late August 2005, left about 1,833 dead and millions rendered homeless. Thus, the survivors of Hurricane Katrina went through the various phases of disaster. First, the victims went through the pre-disaster phase. For instance, the disaster occurred unexpectedly; hence the survivors were left with the fear of future occurrences. The survivors were left with feelings of vulnerability of future disasters, and subsequently the residents of New Orleans and its surrounding feared for their security. The then director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, Michael D. Brown felt guilty of failing to take the necessary measures to evade or minimize the destructions caused by the disaster and eventually resigned (Zimmermann, 2015). Even today, the residents of New Orleans live in fear, especially when they see signs of hurricane.
The second phase was heroic phase, where the residents, the neighbors, and even the government officials came in to help the victims to get out of the disaster. For example, the then United States President George W. Bush ordered rescuers to go and evacuate the victims with immediate effect. Although this order was critical in saving lives, the lives of the rescue team were put under the risk of getting lost in the process. The third phase of Hurricane Katrina disaster was the honeymoon phase. Here, the National Guard chipped in to help in evacuating the victims (Zimmermann, 2015). As a result, thousands of victims were evacuated and were taken to the New Orleans Convention Center and the Superdome as refugees (Zimmermann, 2015). There is also solid evidence that the community underwent through the disillusion phase of the disaster. When the community leaders felt that it was too late to save the victims from the impacts of the disaster, they started to politicize the disaster, where the state and local officials blamed one another for the disaster (Zimmermann, 2015). This is clear evidence that they had given up in assisting the victims of the disaster.
The final psychological disaster phase experienced following Hurricane Katrina was reconstruction phase. Since then, government officials have resolved to put better communications and evacuation policies to effectively address any further occurrences (Zimmermann, 2015). The reorganization of FEMA in 2006 sought to revise the evacuation plans (Zimmermann, 2015). The city of the New Orleans has been rebuilt and fitted with steel beams that extend as far as 65 feet below sea level (Zimmermann, 2015). However, the residents still live in fear, with the city’s population dropping dramatically from 1.386 million in 2005 to 1.04 million in 2006 (Zimmermann, 2015). Today, many residents have resumed their normal lives and the region has started receiving tourists.
Cultural competence plays a key role in determining the success of any disaster management. Scott (2007) defines cultural competence as a set of congruent attitudes, policies, and behaviors displayed in a system, an institution, or in any agency to facilitate effective work in cross-cultural situations. An excellent cultural competence facilitates quick evacuation of the victims of the disaster and recovery from the harm inflicted to the victims by the disaster. Poor cultural competence, on the other hand, hinders or delays the evacuation process, and subsequently results in more avoidable deaths and health deterioration than expected. For the case of Hurricane Katrina, cultural competence was primarily depicted in two phases of psychological disaster response. These faces are the disillusion and the reconstruction phases.
During the disillusion phase of Hurricane Katrina disaster, the nationa turned into a political storm. The rescue process was highly politicized by both the local and state officials. As a result, Michael D. Brown, the then FEMA director was forced to resign for failing to offer the best rescue tactics during the disaster (Zimmermann, 2015). Besides, New Orleans, Mayor Ray Nagin and Louisiana Gov. Kathleen Blanco were highly scrutinized for delayed evacuations (Zimmermann, 2015). Later on, a bipartisan committee of the U.S House of Representatives was selected to investigate the cause of the incompetent response to the disaster, where the committee cited “A Failure of Initiative” as the primary cause of the delayed response (Scott, 2007). It is also reported that residents failed to heed initial warnings to evacuate; thus rendering the rescue operations ineffective (Scott, 2007). Overall, poor leadership in the rescue team was the primary cause of the delayed response to the disaster management, leading to the disillusion phase of the disaster.
Cultural competence also played a critical during the psychological reconstruction phase of Hurricane Katrina. For instance, the various government officials had learnt a lesson from their failures to set tangible measures for handling disasters. As a result, various stakeholders came together to set and implement better communications, environmental, and evacuation policies for handling future disasters (Scott, 2007). The construction of steel barriers in the sea and reorganization of FEMA assured residents of their security, and subsequently facilitated the resettlement of the displaced residents. Also, the formation of the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act facilitated the revival of the New Orleans city (Zimmermann, 2015). This Act addressed two cultural factors that may hinder quick evacuation in future. First, the act sought to address language barriers during the evacuation process through provision of better communication with non-English speakers (Scott, 2007). Secondly, the act increased funding for Urban Search and Rescue teams as well as championing family registration within six months after a storm (Zimmermann, 2015). Well-wishers across the world also raised funds to not only support those in the refugee camps, but also help in rebuilding the city of New Orleans.
Overall, the severity of Hurricane Katrina was increased by certain cultural factors that challenged the actions of behavioral health professionals as they tried to implement psychological first aid (PFA). For example, cross-cultural issues, such as administrative and linguistic barriers limited the rescuers’ ability to evacuate the victims that were affected by the floods. Leaders, such as Brown and Blanco lacked good communication networks for linking with their junior staff for quick and effective rescue process. This led to delayed evacuation order leading to increased deaths. Language barrier, on the other hand, limited the evacuation of non-English speakers. However, the recovery process was facilitated by the excellent cultural competence that emerged after the disaster. For instance, leaders across the United States came together and formulated policies and strategies for mitigating future occurrences of disasters. Also, people across the nation united to help in rebuilding New Orleans and resettling the displaced residents. This unity championed the reconstruction phase of Hurricane Katrina disaster. Today, the residents of New Orleans city have resumed their normal lives despite the deadly hurricane that struck the area fourteen years ago.
References
Jones, T., Immel, S., Moore, M., & Hadder, M. (2008). Hurricane Katrina: Experiences of Psychologists and Implications for Future Disaster Response Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 39 (1): 100 –106.
Nojavan, M., Salehi, E., & Omidvar, B. (2018). Conceptual change of disaster management models: A thematic analysis. Jamba (Potchefstroom, South Africa) . 10 (1): 451. doi:10.4102/jamba.v10i1.451. Retrieved December 13, 2019; from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6014072/
SAMHSA. (2018). Phases of Disaster: Disaster Technical Assistance Center. [Online]. Retrieved December 13, 2019; from https://www.samhsa.gov/dtac/recovering-disasters/phases-disaster
Scott, C. (2007). Concept Paper: Importance of Cultural Competency in Disaster Management: Center for Public Service Communications. P. 1-37.
Zimmermann, K.A. (2015). Hurricane Katrina: Facts, Damage & Aftermath. [Online]. Retrieved December 13, 2019; from https://www.livescience.com/22522-hurricane-katrina-facts.html
