Chemically, organochlorines (OCs) are organic molecules with chlorine as the main part of their structure. The compounds have received various applications in various industries, including agricultural, industrial, and pharmaceutical enterprises. However, these compounds are known for their environmental impact, emphasizing their ecological toxicity. The use of organochlorine as pesticides dates back to the Second World War. Insecticides and pesticides are chemicals used to destroy a wide array of organisms, including insects, bacteria, and fungi. Organochlorines have received a wide application across various parts of the world. The typical examples of organochlorine insecticides include DDT, aldrin, hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), and dieldrin. Although these insecticides are known for their low cost, their environmental persistence is high. The discussion will pay significant attention to organochlorine insecticides, the risks they pose to humans and the recommendation for control.
The Nature of Organochlorine Insecticides
The organochlorine insecticides are classified into various groups. The three main classes include dichlorodiphenylethanes, chlorinated cyclodienes, and hexachlorocyclohexane. Examples of dichlorodiphenylethanes are DDT, perthane, and dicofol. Chlorinated cyclodienes include aldrin and dieldrin. Hexachlorocyclohexane encompasses pesticides such as BHC, lindane, and mirex (Gupta & Gupta, 2017). The insecticides are known for their fat-soluble characteristic that allows them to accumulate in the environment. Several countries have banned or restricted the use of organochlorine insecticides and pesticides. The use of these compounds as pesticides began in the wake of the Second World War. Barr & Buckley (2011) emphasize that these insecticides received a significant application in the United States during the mid-20 th century. The pesticide versions of the organochlorine compounds were used in agricultural activities. Regardless of their role in getting rid of insects and pests, the environment's persistence makes them a risky compound to use. Insecticides such as DDT have been banned in countries such as the US. The risks associated with organochlorine insecticides are well-documented.
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Risks to Humans
The intended use of the organochlorine insecticides is to control insects and insect-borne diseases. Despite the critical role, the compounds have adverse effects on humans due to the ability to persist and bio-accumulate in the environment for an extended period. The compounds are regarded as endocrine-disrupting chemicals thanks to their impact on the human body's hormonal balance. Some types of organochlorine molecules are also known for their carcinogenicity (Tsai, 2014). Research by Gupta & Gupta (2017) demonstrates that these insecticides can also be classified as neurotoxicants. On entering the human body, the compounds can adversely affect the health of an individual. For instance, a close relationship exists between DDT and the causation of parethesia of the face, tongue, and limbs. Other symptoms associated with DDT include tremors, apprehension, and convulsions (Gupta & Gupta, 2017). The insecticides are also known for their impact in stimulating the central nervous system. Cyclodienes are also recognized for the vast array of adverse effects they have on human life. Upon exposure, individuals can develop nausea, dizziness, seizures, vomiting, and myoclonic jerking. The adverse symptoms associated with the chemicals explain why some countries have either banned or controlled these compounds.
Besides the persistence, some insects have developed resistance against the organochlorine insecticides. Following their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and skin, the chemicals enter the body's immune system. These chemicals' most toxic action occurs in the nervous system, both the peripheral and the central systems. Several mechanisms arise throughout the body system to ensure that the chemicals assert their full impact on the physiology. As explained by Pleština (2003), "They act by altering the electrophysiological properties of the cell membranes disturbing sodium and potassium ion exchange through the membrane" (pp.45). However, the main advantage is that this is a reversible process. Therefore, low exposure to low levels of organochlorine insecticides carries less considerable lethal effects (Aoyama & Chapin, 2014). Various insecticides have a differential impact on the body, depending on their class. The organochlorine insecticides are also associated with the disruption of the endocrine system, which is responsible for producing hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers in the body and are virtually accountable for almost all the body's primary physiological processes. Most vivo toxicity studies have shown that organochlorine pesticides can contribute to ovulation failures and the development of cystic ovaries (Aoyama & Chapin, 2014). Hormonal imbalances, ovulation failures, and uterine hypertrophy are all possibilities associated with exposure to the chemicals.
Movement in the Environment & Entry in the Body
Conventionally, organochlorine insecticides are applied to kill insects in the soil or aquatic environment. During application or volatilization, a small amount of the insecticide remains suspended in the air. However, a large quantity is deposited on the soil particles. The death and decomposition of the insects also leave the particles of the chemical exposed deposited in the soil particles. The intentional application to control the insects can also lead to the entry of the chemicals in the aquatic environment. Once the insecticides are used, they persist within the environment for a while. Organochlorine molecules remain more persistent in the environment more than any other typical organic compound. The organochlorine compounds have a low solubility in water. The amount of chemicals reaching the aquatic environment through runoff is comparatively low. However, the careless or accidental spillage of large amounts of the insecticides in water can contribute to transportation via streams and rivers. Some of the insecticides can also be used as pesticides for agricultural purposes. When insecticides are used as pesticides, movement can occur along the food chain. According to Jayaraj, Megha, & Sreedev (2016), consumption of foods such as meat, fish, and poultry can expose individuals to these dangerous chemical compounds.
Entry into the human body occurs, thanks to absorption. As elaborated by Ensley (2018), the absorption process occurs via the oral and topical channels. The author further emphasizes that the absorption process is rapid because of the compound's lipid solubility. The low volatility rules out the commonality of absorption through inhalation. However, absorption through the nasal route can occur in some cases. As explained by the author, "Absorption of the OCs after inhalation exposure occurs primarily by mucociliary trapping followed by gastrointestinal absorption" (Ensley, 2018 pp.193). Other potential sites for absorption include the skin and the gastrointestinal routes. Therefore, this makes the human body a possible site for the absorption of the organochlorine compounds. The same applies to animals and plants, which also serve as potential sites for absorbing the chemical compounds. Following the absorption process, the distribution follows various organs such as the brain, kidney, liver, and adipose tissue. The chemical undergoes several changes within the human body as it embarks on its toxicity.
Changes in the Body
The researcher does not fully understand the mechanism of action of these insecticides. However, each organochlorine insecticide has a unique mechanism of metabolism within the body and toxicity effect. For instance, DDT-insecticides function by interfering with the transportation of potassium and sodium ions across the axonal membranes (Gupta & Gupta, 2017). The impact of these alterations includes prolonged action potentials and negative after-potentials. The DDT also blocks sodium channel activation and conductance of the potassium ions. Cyclodienes is another class of organochlorine insecticides with a different mode of action ion entering the human body. According to Gupta & Gupta (2017), the cyclodienes work by primarily causing an over-excitation of the CNS of the human body. Gupta & Gupta (2017) also assert that cyclodienes work in the same fashion as the picrotoxin by interfering with neuronal inhibition within the brain. Besides the brain's inhibitions, the chemical also paralyzes the activities of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The effects of these insecticides on the body are wide and far-reaching. Some overtake the body's metabolism system, interfering with vital processes such as hormonal secretion (Kleanthi, Katerina, Evaggelia, & Andreas, 2008). However, some insecticides adversely affect the genetic makeup of the body hence predisposing an individual to cancer.
Recommendations
Several measures have been taken in a bid to protect individuals from these toxic substances. Many governments across the country have taken measures to curb the exposure of people to these dangerous insecticides. For instance, the US has banned DDT due to the toxic effects on the endocrine system. Insecticides such as the OCPs have been banned not only in America but also in Europe (Nuro, 2018). Governments are responsible for assessing the toxicity levels of an insecticide or a pesticide and responding by policy measures for or against it. Besides the government action, individuals must also take the responsibility of practicing safety when engaging with these insecticides. The first consideration is to use personal protective equipment, such as gloves, masks, protective garments. The aim is to ensure minimal exposure of the mouth, nose, and skin. The organochlorine insecticides have more than one portals of entry, and therefore individuals are asked to take the necessary caution. The bio-accumulation of the compound in the soil and water surfaces is another considerable risk factor. Individuals are warned against touching soils where insecticides or pesticides have recently been applied. Such a move ensures that a person does not expose their skin to soil that potentially contains the chemical.
Besides personal initiatives, exposure assessment is a viable recommendation to limit the risk of these chemicals to humans. As explained by Guimarães, Asmus, & Burdorf (2013), "The concept of exposure in the area of environmental epidemiology is defined as a contact limited in time and space between an individual and one or more biological, chemical and physical agents" (pp.231). Environmental health's main aim is to mitigate and eliminate potential harms caused by contaminants within the human surrounding. Secondly, it should focus on maintaining toxicity levels that do not present immense risks to humans' lives. The achievement of the two goals depends on identifying and quantifying the risk through assays and assessments. The manufacturers of these products have a moral responsibility to lower the toxicity levels of the organochlorine insecticides. More research needs to be done to differentiate the biological and chemical structures of humans and insects. The outcome will allow the manufacturers to create more specific insecticides that have limited to no human effect.
Conclusion
The discussion has paid significant attention to organochlorine insecticides, the risks they pose to humans, and the recommendation for control. The organochlorine insecticides are organic compounds that are covalently bonded to a chlorine molecule. The compound has received a significant application in the manufacture of insecticides and pesticides. However, these compounds have a high persistence and bio-accumulation on the ecosystem. Also, they are known for their human toxicity leading to endocrine and nervous system problems. The chemicals alter the chemical and biological components of the body. Recommendations for their use range from banning excessively toxic materials, personal protection, and conducting risk assessment procedures.
References
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Gupta, R. K., & Gupta, R. C. (2017). Placental toxicity . In Reproductive and developmental toxicology (pp. 1301-1325). Academic Press.
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Kleanthi, G., Katerina, L., Evaggelia, P., & Andreas, L. (2008). MECHANISMS OF ACTIONS AND HEALTH EFFECTS OF ORGANOCHLORINE SUBSTANCES : A REVIEW. Health Science Journal , 2 (2).
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Pleština, R. (2003). Pesticides and herbicides types of pesticide . Elsevier
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