The attachment theory in the context of psychology has its background in the study by John Bowlby, a psychiatrist in a Child Guidance Clinic in London. In his time at the clinic, John treated many emotionally challenged children, making him curious about the attachment between a child and their mother regarding cognitive, emotional and social development. Attachment may be described as a deep and long-lasting emotional connection between individuals across time and space. However, attachment is not always shared. An individual may have attachment to another person which is not mutual. In this context, attachment is characterized by certain behaviors in children; for instance, trying to find proximity with the attachment figure when distressed or threatened. The attachment figure, in turn, responds sensitively and suitably to the child’s needs. According to Lickliter (2008), such behavior exhibited by children and their caregivers is common across cultures. This paper discusses to theories of attachment as well as how disturbances of attachment are observed and affect the nature of interpersonal relationships.
The Behaviorist Theory of Attachment
This theory holds that attachment comprises a set of learned behaviors. The basis of learning attachments according to this theory is provision of food, whereby the infant develops an attachment to the individual who feeds it. Infants learn to associate the feeder, who is often the mother, with the comfort of being provided for and via the process of classical conditioning, consider contact with the feeder reassuring. Classical conditioning theory holds that people, even infants, learn new behaviors through the process of association ( Lickliter, 2008 ). In other words, a pair of stimuli produces a new learned response in an individual. In this case, the infant associates crying, for instance, with attention from its caregiver. It can be said, therefore, that the infant is conditioned to expect attention if they start crying. This is why they cry when they are hungry or in a case where the attachment figure seems to have left them behind.
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Infants also discover that certain behaviors, including smiling and crying, are rewarded by comfort and attention from other individuals. Thus, through the process of operant conditioning, infants tend to repeat these behaviors so that they may get these rewards. According to the operant conditioning theory, behaviors that are promoted tend to be repeated, while those that receive minimum response tend to grow weaker with time ( Lickliter, 2008 ). If the attachment figure gives a certain response most of the time the infant behaves in a certain way, then the infant repeats this behavior frequently in order to get what they want. Since the attachment figure is likely to offer comfort and attention almost every time the infant behaves in a certain way, then the infant will repeat these behaviors whenever they need the attachment figure.
The Evolutionary Theory of Attachment
This theory suggests that babies are born pre-conditioned to develop attachments with others in order to increase their chances of survival in the world. Children produce instinctive “social releaser” behaviors such as smiling and crying that provoke instinctive responses from their caregivers. Unlike the behaviorist theory of attachment, this theory implies that the determinant of attachment is not food; rather, it is responsiveness and care ( Lickliter, 2008 ).
For a newborn, the mother is often the main attachment figure, but not only because she is the source of nutrition. The infant forms a primary attachment with the mother so that she is a secure base for discovering the world. The infant uses its relationship with the mother or attachment figure as a prototype for most future relationships. Therefore, the interactions between the attachment figure and the figure have to be consistent; otherwise, there might be severe outcomes in the development of the infant ( Lickliter, 2008 ). There is also a vital period for developing attachments, mostly between the ages of 0 and 5. Failure to properly develop these attachments during this period would result in irreversible complications in development, including excessive aggression and reduced intelligence.
Disturbance of Attachment
Normally, children tend to be appropriately attached to their caregivers. Proper attachment during the initial stages of a child’s life allows them to have confidence that they are worth attention and love, thereby laying the foundation for appropriate future interpersonal relationships. However, there are instances whereby children do not receive the opportunity to attach appropriately because of certain reasons and therefore show irregularities in their development regarding interpersonal relationships as they grow older. Given that the field of attachment has grown over the past several decades, many studies have developed procedures aimed at observing this occurrence among children. One of the most accurate models used for this purpose is the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) (Ainsworth et al., 2015).
This model rates the child’s behavior during moments spent with the caregiver, alone, with a stranger, and at the instance of reunion with the caregiver. In the course of these stressful circumstances, the evaluation emphasizes the child’s efforts to regain contact with the caregiver, the distance between the child and the caregiver, whether the child avoids or resists the caregiver, and the degree of distress. Children who are considered to have a “secure attachment” immediately attempt to return to the caregiver (Ainsworth et al., 2015). The children who have “insecure-avoidant attachment” relationships tend to be unaware of the caregiver and do not strive to make contact with them upon reunion. The children categorized as “insecure-resistant attachment” are partially concerned with their proximity to the caregiver and do not demonstrate comfort upon reunion. Those who are classified as “disoriented or disorganized attachment” do not have predictable approach to stressful circumstances as they appear calm in some case while distressed in other cases.
The impact of Attachment Disturbance
The most severe cases of attachment disturbance tend to occur in a setting of early deprivation, neglect, and abuse. Even though it is likely that some children will experience considerable attachment challenges arising from sources separate from abuse but deprived of attachment opportunities, such instances, including medically complex babies with lengthy hospitalizations, are rare and have not yet been adequately researched. Regardless, a study by Zeanah and Gleason (2010) suggest that young children are significantly affected regarding future interpersonal relationships by early and vital pathological care. This study holds that disturbances in attachment take place in a setting of psychological traumas that are so serious that they interfere with normal development during times when a child is building important biological and psychological foundations that are required for future development (Ainsworth et al., 2015). A disturbance in attachment, therefore, is likely to have adverse consequences on such elements as personality formation and integration, emotional regulation, memory, and attention and learning.
Conclusion
This paper provides an elaborate explanation of the attachment theory and refers to the significance of attachment between a child and the caregiver. The discussion places the mother as the most common caregiver for an infant. The discussion also describes two theories of attachment: the behaviorist theory of attachment and the evolutionary theory of attachment. The behaviorist theory holds that children attach to their caregivers based on the provision of food, whereby the attachment figure is the provider of nutrition. However, the evolutionary theory suggests that children are born pre-programmed to develop attachments with others with the aim of surviving. The motivation, in this case, is care and responsiveness. Finally, the SSP model is used to observe disturbances in attachment. For children who experience attachment disturbance, such aspects of their lives as personality formation and integration, emotional regulation, memory, and attention and learning are likely to be severely affected in future.
References
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (2015). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation . Psychology Press.
Lickliter, R. (2008). Theories of attachment: The long and winding road to an integrative developmental science. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science , 42 (4), 397-405.
Zeanah, C. H., & Gleason, M. M. (2010). Reactive attachment disorder: a review for DSM-IV. Washington. DC: American Psychiatric Association .
