Name of theory :
Adlerian
Founder of the theory:
Alfred Adler
View of human nature (include innate capacities/capabilities and motivational constructs):
Environment or heredity is not the sole determinant of human behavior ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016) .
Humans can influence, interpret, and create events within their lives.
Humans have choice and responsibility and strive for success and perfection while searching for a meaningful life.
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People are driven to overcome inferiority feelings and pursue higher levels of success.
Human life is goal oriented.
View of pathology/maladjustment (how do individuals develop dysfunction/mental illness):
Patients are not sick but uneducated or misinformed.
Underdevelopment always results in a feeling of inferiority or an attitude of superiority that makes goals self-centered ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016) .
View of the well-functioning individual:
A well-functioning individual rises when faced with inferiority feelings and overcome it by turning a weakness into strength.
They do not let inferiority to lead to their dysfunctional behavior through discouragement ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016) .
They work hard to master the area of inferiority, and their own logic is in harmony with prerequisites of social living.
View of the change process:
Change process takes place in a holistic form.
The process assesses lifestyle, fosters a counselor-client relationship, and addresses mistaken goals the patient may have.
Change happens through reeducating the client on a mistaken belief.
Counseling relationship/counselor role:
A therapeutic relationship is essential to successful outcomes (Corey, 2009)
Contracts state the goals, achievement plans and responsibilities of everyone.
Counselor explores family constellation and assesses lifestyle to check the client’s level of functioning.
Counseling goals:
To increase the client’s self-awareness and improve the sense of belonging
To educate them on new approaches to view and understand self
To look at counseling through growth instead of sickness model
Key Concepts:
Subjective view to reality (Corey, 2009)
The world is seen phenomenologically.
Attention is paid to the way an individual perceives their world.
Subjective realities are mainly more than objective one and include thoughts, beliefs, and feelings
The birth order shows the position of an individual in the family.
Sibling relationships affect personality development and cause inferiority feelings.
Life is goal oriented (Corey, 2009)
Techniques and Diagnosis/Appraisal Instruments/Approaches
Major techniques:
Forging a proper therapeutic relationship
Exploring psychological changes occurring in the client
Encouraging development of self-understanding (Corey, 2009)
Helping the client make new choices
Assessment of need for treatment planning:
Lifestyle assessment
Mistaken assumptions on self and life of the client
Assessment of counseling progress:
The ability to create new decisions after re-education and reorientation
Multicultural Strengths and Shortcomings:
Strengths:
Enhances social equality ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
The views are congruent with a diverse population
Gender and cultural sensitivity
Weakness:
Western influence on life view
Family constellation can seem irrelevant for clients having current pressing challenges ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016) .
Research Supporting the Effectiveness:
Shows potential in treating alcoholism and group counseling
Limitations/Criticisms:
Often considered too simplistic and lacks formalization.
EXISTENTIAL THEORY
Name of theory:
Existential
Founder of the theory:
Victor Frankl, Rollo May
View of human nature (include innate capacities/capabilities and motivational constructs):
People are in constant change as a response to conflict (Corey, 2009)
Humanity involves continually questioning and rediscovering oneself and trying to make sense of one’s life (Corey, 2009)
Six dimensions of the human condition include:
Self-awareness
Anxiety as a living condition
Identity and meaningful relationships
Freedom and responsibility
Search for meaning
Awareness of death
View of pathology/maladjustment (how do individuals develop dysfunction/mental illness):
Dysfunction comes from alienation, isolation or meaninglessness
Maladjustment results from falling into the trap of unhealthy patterns of behavior
Lack of self-awareness becomes imminent, and the individual blames others and feeling they cannot solve conflicts on their own (Corey, 2009)
View of well-functioning individual:
A well-functioning individual is self-aware and able to deal with conflict and grow.
The person should be in a constant state of renewal and change
View of the change process:
Change happens when the person questions the preconceived knowledge, embrace their role in the present situation, project the kind of life they want to lead and restructure their actions and beliefs towards the goal (Corey, 2009).
Counseling relationship/counselor role:
Therapeutic relationship helps in stimulating change and is based on respect
The therapist shows faith in the client’s coping ability and to uncover different ways of being (Corey, 2009)
The role of the counselor is to understand the client’s objective reality and assist them to have new views and make more choices
Counseling goals:
Assisting clients to confront the anxieties they have been avoiding
Help clients redefine themselves in a way that nurtures authenticity and make clients see areas in which they are deceiving themselves (Corey, 2009)
Key Concepts:
Anxiety as a survival response to stimuli divided into three: existential, normal, and neurotic (Corey, 2009)
Freedom of choice makes individuals have an active role in shaping their destinies and have a responsibility to for how their lives turn out (Corey, 2009)
Humans strive for identity and interpersonal relationships
The search for meaning, significance, and purpose of life
Techniques and Diagnosis/Appraisal Instruments/Approaches
Major techniques:
It is not technique oriented (Corey, 2009)
Assessment of need for treatment planning:
Candidates are mostly victims of substance abuse, minorities, or people with grief or suffer loss (Corey, 2009)
Assessment of counseling progress:
Checking whether the client can put into action what they learn and use their strength to live purposefully
Multicultural Strengths and Shortcomings:
Strengths:
Allows for diversity
Has international appeal
Weaknesses:
Individualistic (Corey, 2009)
Ignores social causes of human problems
Overlooks factors of oppression
Research Supporting the Effectiveness:
Can be used in career counseling
Ideal for individuals facing confusion and questioning the current state (Corey, 2009)
Limitations/Criticisms:
Lacks proven techniques (Corey, 2009)
Lacks systematic principle statements
Requires evidence-based practices
PERSON-CENTERED
Name of theory:
Person-Centered
Founder of the theory:
Carl Rogers
View of human nature (include innate capacities/capabilities and motivational constructs):
Humans can change to be better if growth conditions are available
People are trustworthy
Individuals can move away towards health and away from illness if the path is conducive (Corey, 2009)
View of pathology/maladjustment (how do individuals develop dysfunction/mental illness):
Malfunction exists when there are discrepancies between the perception of self and the actual experiences
View of well-functioning individual:
A well-functioning individual has congruence between the self-perception and the real-life experiences (Corey, 2009)
View of the change process:
People have an innate ability to change and only need the right condition for it to occur
Counseling relationship/counselor role:
Three conditions are necessary for a therapeutic change (Corey, 2009):
Congruence and authenticity from the therapist
Unconditional positive regard for the care
Accurate empathic understanding
Therapist attitudes more critical in change process than knowledge or technique
The presence of a counselor is an essential tool for achieving change
Counseling goals:
To promote a higher independence level
To provide a suitable environment for change and make the individual fully functional.
Guiding the client to create their personal therapy goals
Key Concepts:
Focus on self-concept and individual’s set of beliefs consistently (Corey, 2009)
Emphasizes the three conditions for a therapeutic change listed above
Encourages client’s reality from their point of view
Empathy forms the essential aspect of this approach
Emotions are rooted in this approach
Techniques and Diagnosis/Appraisal Instruments/Approaches
Major techniques:
Lacks specific techniques and it is based on communicating attitudes and being present for the client (Corey, 2009)
Assessment of need for treatment planning:
Client the best source of information about them
No typical methods of evaluation as the therapist follow the lead of the client throughout the process
Assessment of counseling progress:
It is a shared journey involving client and therapist sharing experiences, and both engage in positive growth (Corey, 2009)
Multicultural Strengths and Shortcomings:
Strengths:
Has a global impact
Useful with a diverse population
Emphasis on the personal strengths of the client makes it valuable in multicultural arena
Weaknesses:
The collectivist cultures may reject it
Many people desire a structured approach
Research Supporting the Effectiveness:
Applicable in solving crises such as death, illness, and catastrophes for individuals who are emotionally stuck
Limitations/Criticisms:
Lacks empirical evidence
Counselors can have a hard time making their clients define their goals
Can be hindered by personal shortcomings of the therapist
GESTALT THEORY
Name of theory:
Gestalt
Founder of the theory:
Fritz Perls, Laura Posner Perls
View of human nature (include innate capacities/capabilities and motivational constructs):
Humans naturally move towards wellbeing and health ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
People possess abilities to regulate themselves as they are aware of what is happening around them
View of pathology/maladjustment (how do individuals develop dysfunction/mental illness):
Dysfunction occurs when people are not authentic and honest with themselves
Maladjustment is a result of a person focusing on what they are not and overlooking their realities ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
View of well-functioning individual:
A well-functioning individual is one who lives in the present and is aware of the environment and its impact on them
The individual self-regulates to fit in different situations and conflicts ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
View of the change process:
Change takes place when a person becomes aware of who and what they are in the present and ignores what and who they should be
The more a person focuses on what they are not, the more they stagnate ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Counseling relationship/counselor role:
Therapy depends heavily on the client-counselor relationship and is geared towards dialogue
Counselor models the process of useful interactions ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
The therapist listens carefully to the language of the client and draws clues
Counseling goals:
Increasing awareness of the present
To create a context that makes the client perceive what they are presently going through and improve the quality of interpersonal contact ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Key Concepts:
Experimentation from therapeutic relationships makes a person see present
Modern therapy engages confrontations in a collaborative way
Pays particular attention to the language used by clients
Emphasizes the present
Techniques and Diagnosis/Appraisal Instruments/Approaches
Major techniques:
Internal dialogue-for the client to externalize their inner feelings
Making rounds-Client goes around the group and says or does something as instructed
The direction of the opinion- the therapist encourages the client to stay with the attitude and not deviate
Role reversal-clients asked to act in a way that is the polar opposite ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Assessment of need for treatment planning:
Clients who cannot accept their current situations are best suited
Assessment of counseling progress:
Assessing the coping level of the client and the ability to deal with surprises in life
Evaluate the ability to make decisions that lead to the wanted goal ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Multicultural Strengths and Shortcomings:
Strengths:
Can be tailored to fit diverse communities ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Can help bicultural individuals integrate parts drawn from each culture
It applies to the cultures with non-verbal cues being more expressive than spoken words
Weaknesses:
Cultural influences can be a hindrance in expressing feelings
Research Supporting the Effectiveness:
Can be used to treat a variety of disorders like psychosomatic problems, substance abuse, and personality disorders
Limitations/Criticisms:
The counselor is seen merely as a facilitator who helps the client achieve personal changes
Poorly trained therapists can do more harm than good ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
BEHAVIORAL
Name of theory:
Behavioral
Founder of the theory:
Arnold Lazarus, Alfred Bandura, B.F. Skinner
View of human nature (include innate capacities/capabilities and motivational constructs):
Humans are creators and creation of the environment ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
An increase in learned skills will lead to more options for responding behaviors
Provides control to clients and increase their freedom range
View of pathology/maladjustment (how do individuals develop dysfunction/mental illness):
Maladjustment is learned
View of well-functioning individual:
A well-functioning individual has learned behaviors that are socially acceptable
They are not limited by behavior or restricted in decision-making ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
View of the change process:
Change occurs when the individual relearns the helpful responses and leaves the maladjusted ones
Evolution takes place through behavioral rehearsal with feedback from the therapist until mastery of skills
Counseling relationship/counselor role:
Has a collaborative working relationship between client and counselor
Counselors act as consultants and are also active in the therapeutic process
The therapist conducts a functional assessment using the ABC model
Counseling goals:
The client is the definer of the goals with the help of the therapist
Goals can be altered throughout the process ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
The goal is to make the client learn good behavior
Key Concepts:
Learning theory-Social conditions in which learning occurs can influence the perspective of the behavior
Classical conditioning-Refers to what happens before the education as a response to pairing ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Operant conditioning-Behavior is affected by the results that follow
Modeling-Learning through imitation and observation ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Exposure methods-clients are exposed to either imaginative or events that evoke anxiety
Techniques and Diagnosis/Appraisal Instruments/Approaches
Major techniques:
Applied Behavioral Analysis ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016) including:
Systematic desensitization
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
Social skills training
Self-Modification Programs
Assessment of need for treatment planning:
Empirical methods can be used in the evaluation
Clear treatment plans are formed at the start of counseling and can be altered throughout
Goals of treatment are agreed upon by the therapist and client
Assessment of counseling progress:
Goals are established at the beginning of the process and action plan taught to achieve the goals
Evaluation is done before, during, and after treatment to measure progress
Multicultural Strengths and Shortcomings:
Strengths:
Task-oriented
Teaches coping strategies
Focuses on objectivity
Deals with the present more than the past
Focuses on cognition and behavior ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Weaknesses:
Gives little emphasis on diversity
It is possible to overlook significant problems in client’s lives ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Research Supporting the Effectiveness:
It is useful in institutional settings like prisons, hospitals, and schools
Can be employed to manage chronic pain, relationship problems, and depression ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Limitations/Criticisms:
Handles symptoms instead of causes ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
The counselor control and manipulates the therapy
Does not offer insight to clients
Can change behavior but not feelings
SOLUTION-FOCUSED
Name of theory:
Solution-Focused
Founder of the theory:
Steve De Shazer, Insoo Kim Berg
View of human nature (include innate capacities/capabilities and motivational constructs):
People are trustworthy with the intention to solve their problems ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Individuals want to change, can change, and are trying their best to afford it
View of pathology/maladjustment (how do individuals develop dysfunction/mental illness):
Maladjustment is a function of the mishandling of daily experiences or unsuccessful interactions with others ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
View of well-functioning individual:
One who can adequately handle the regular everyday mishaps and interact well with others
View of the change process:
The client is the custodian of their life and chooses the needed change ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Change is agitated from within
Smaller changes are opportunities for more significant changes
Solution-talks reorganize the patient to the direction of their strengths
Counseling relationship/counselor role:
The relationship should be collaborative
Counselor creates the context for change and clients initiate the change
Counseling goals:
The client is responsible for the goal of creation as they are unique
Assisting the individual in having a new meaning in their lives while concentrating on the small, realistic and achievable goals
Key Concepts:
Positive psychology-Therapist helps the person view the positive side of life by focusing on their strengths
Looking for solutions-Therapists help clients discover the exceptions to problems ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Based on some assumptions:
Small changes lead to bigger ones
Clients can be trusted
Every issue has limitations
Clients want to change
Clients are biased, and clients must encourage them to present every part of themselves
Techniques and Diagnosis/Appraisal Instruments/Approaches
Major techniques:
Forging a collaborative relationship ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Pre-therapy change
Exception question-guiding the client to a time when the problem was less prevalent
Miracle question-what would happen if the problem were solved through a miracle?
Scaling questions to measure progress using the Likert-type chart
Formula first session talks ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Counselor feedback
Assessment of need for treatment planning:
Client assesses the areas they want to be changed through self-assessment with the help of the therapist
Assessment of counseling progress:
Clients to report the changes and the counselor compare the goals set upfront
If solutions are not working, the patient is encouraged to employ other forms
Multicultural Strengths and Shortcomings:
Strengths:
Based on socio-cultural grounds
Humans are viewed as to have the similar needs, aspirations, and goals ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Weaknesses:
Does not emphasize the difference in cultures
Some cultures expect the counselor to be an expert hence dissatisfaction may arise
Research Supporting the Effectiveness:
Useful in school settings as it helps students seek more constructive avenues ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Limitations/Criticisms:
Lacks support from empirical research
Too simplistic
The relationship between client and counselor may not develop enough to be therapeutic
FAMILY SYSTEMS
Name of theory:
Family Systems
Founder of the theory:
Alfred Adler, Cloe Madanes, Jay Haley, Salvador Minuchin, Carl Whitaker, Virginia Satir, and Murray Bowen
View of human nature (include innate capacities/capabilities and motivational constructs):
People can be best understood through the assessment of the entire family ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
View of pathology/maladjustment (how do individuals develop dysfunction/mental illness):
Pathology begins with the expression of dysfunction within the family
View of well-functioning individual:
Individuals and family must be in balance to function best and by comprehending the purposes served by behaviors, feelings, and interactions ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015) .
View of the change process:
Change is collaborative, and the counselor should work with the client and family to develop a plan for it.
Counseling relationship/counselor role:
Collaborative therapeutic relationship
Therapists must consider the effects of their personal values on the relationship
Counseling goals:
Goals are set collaboratively by family and counselor ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Key Concepts:
Differentiates between systems and individual approaches ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
| Individual | Systems |
| Looks for causes | Investigates the family system for rules and process |
| Aims for diagnosis | Aims at identifying dysfunctions within a family context and how it affects the individual |
| Treatment focuses on individual | Incorporates the whole family in treatment |
Summarizes the primary family system approaches ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
| Structural-Strategic | Focuses on the behavioral sequence to solve dysfunction |
| Experiential Approach | Creates individual autonomy while maintaining a sense of belonging within the system |
| Multigenerational Approach | Aims at changing the individual in the system level and solves emotional attachments |
| Human Validation Process Model | Transform extreme family rules to functional ones |
| Adlerian |
Handles mistaken goals and interactional patterns Aims at initiating a reorientation of the family |
Techniques and Diagnosis/Appraisal Instruments/Approaches
Major techniques:
Family therapist use techniques that harmonize their core values
Empathy, compassion, respect, sensitivity is more important than techniques ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015) .
Assessment of need for treatment planning:
Checking the presence of unwanted behaviors in the family that render it dysfunctional
Checking the generation pattern to comprehend the behaviors ( Sommers-Flanagan & Sommers-Flanagan, 2015)
Assessment of counseling progress:
When the troubles decrease
The employment of the learned tools and techniques within the families ( Titelman, 2014)
Multicultural Strengths and Shortcomings:
Strengths:
Many cultures emphasize family unit
Interventions are customized to meet specific family needs
Weaknesses:
Problem balancing the individual within the group in non-western cultures ( Titelman, 2014)
Research Supporting the Effectiveness:
Can be used to treat juvenile sex offenders ( Titelman, 2014)
The inclusion of family redefines pathology as a shared instead of the individual problem
Limitations/Criticisms:
The unique characteristics of the individual can be overlooked
Requires a culturally competent counselor and not assuming the universality of Western models of family
REALITY
Name of theory:
Reality
Founder of the theory:
Robert Wubbolding, William Glasser
View of human nature (include innate capacities/capabilities and motivational constructs):
Behavior originates from within and is not externally influenced ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Humans are driven by five genetically encoded needs: freedom, survival, fun, power and achievement, and love and belonging
Humans are the essential thing in the quality world
View of pathology/maladjustment (how do individuals develop dysfunction/mental illness):
Pathology is a function of choices
People choose dysfunction by nurturing paining behavior
Problems arise from unsatisfying or non-existence relationships
View of well-functioning individual:
Decides to act in a way that satisfies the needs and achieve the desired behavior ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Behaves responsibly to meet individual needs without interrupting others from attending theirs
View of the change process:
Change occurs when people decide to
Motivation to change is a matter of accepting the current situation is not working and believing in the power to choose other behavior that can make us do so ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Counseling relationship/counselor role:
Requires therapeutic relationship
The therapist teaches the client self-evaluation techniques
The facilitator needs to maintain focus in the present
Counseling goals:
Helping the clients connect with those they choose for their quality world
Assist the clients in learning ways to meet their entire needs
Help them in making sound choices in pursuit of their needs
Key Concepts:
Choice theory-Humans are internally motivated and behave according to decisions made to control their environment
WDEP concept-Used to explore the client’s wants and needs (W), things they can do (D), self-evaluation opportunities (E), and create empowerment plans (P) ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Planning and action-When the need is known, a client can formulate a plan to achieve the goal
Techniques and Diagnosis/Appraisal Instruments/Approaches
Major techniques:
Therapeutic collaboration
WDEP system
Assessment of need for treatment planning:
Planning is essential
Counselors help clients to identify the wants and then assist in planning for ways to achieve them
Assessment of counseling progress:
Counselors assess whether clients can meet their needs in a healthy and competent way ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Multicultural Strengths and Shortcomings:
Strengths:
Clients can make plans that suit their own views
Applies to every culture and based on universal laws of relationships
Weaknesses:
Minority clients can be overlooked regarding real environmental factors
Research Supporting the Effectiveness:
Applied in hospitals (both general and mental), correctional institutions, substance abuse centers, and schools ( Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2016)
Can be used in crisis intervention, rehabilitation, social work, and counseling
Limitations/Criticisms:
It views transference as an inferior concept
Does not regard specific behaviors as mental illnesses
Overlooks the counseling process
References
Corey, G. (2009). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy (8th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.
Titelman, P. (2014). Clinical applications of Bowen family systems theory : Routledge.
Sommers-Flanagan, J., & Sommers-Flanagan, R. (2015). Counseling and psychotherapy theories in context and practice: Skills, strategies, and techniques : John Wiley & Sons.
Capuzzi, D., & Stauffer, M. D. (2016). Counseling and psychotherapy: Theories and interventions : John Wiley & Sons.
